Problem: The great interest towards the company’s values has contributed to it becoming more common for individuals to seek out organizations that have a strong corporate culture. Where you work and whom you work for has thus become the dominant factors instead of what you are working with. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine how the corporate culture, the rational and emotional benefits are experienced by the employees of the company. The aim is also to examine whether the corporate culture can become a management control measure by good communication between employees within the organization. Methodology: The essay is based on a qualitative research method and empirical data were collected through interviews from the company MTR Stockholm. Theoretical Frame of reference, Edgar Schein, Three Levels of Culture, Seven dimensions. Results: The study has shown that there are different cultures within the company. But also that there is a strong corporate culture within the business, the respondents feel an affinity with working within the underground rather than working for the company MTR Stockholm.

Abstract Background: Networks with closed structures may lead to a scarcity of diversified norms which may leave an individual with only negative norms to be influenced by. Trust, relationship quality and social support are also examples of characteristics which may affect the adoption of health behaviors.                                                                                           Aims: To study whether there are any associations between network closure as well as relationship content (trust, relationship quality, social support) and the use of cannabis as well as the frequency of binge drinking, and how these associations are interacted by other factors.  Method: Logistic regression analyses were carried out to calculate the crude and adjusted odds ratios for 19-years old young adults in Sweden (n=2,942). Interaction analyses were also performed.                                                                                                                          Results: Individuals in high closure networks had a higher tendency to binge drink frequently. Individuals that in general are unhealthy, have many smoking friends and who are males had a higher propensity to both use cannabis and to binge drink when included in high closure networks.                                                                                                                      Conclusion: Individuals may be affected negatively by being included in networks with closed structures – some more than other − which is possibly mediated by the types of norms that are available.

Service quality has been shown to be critical for the success of service organisations. However, the quality of service delivered by an organisation is dependent on the behaviours of organisational members. Therefore, understanding the various processes that foster desirable service behaviour is important. While there have been many studies which deal with antecedents of service delivery, research adopting a cultural perspective and focusing on elements such as shared values and norms have been somewhat sparse. This is quite surprising given the amount of reference to the importance of a service culture. Recently, there have been calls for research into the cultural determinants of service quality and in particular service culture. This study answers the call by testing a multi-layer model of service culture and performance. The key objectives of the study relate to understanding how service culture leads to both customer-based and financial performance, as well as investigating the process of culture transmission from managers to employees. On the basis of data collected from management and employees, the study assesses service culture at the management and the employee levels, focusing simultaneously on assumptions, value, norms and behaviours. Two routes for culture transmission: the social contagion and behavioural routes are hypothesised and tested. The key findings are that shared service norms are the key impact point of culture transmission from management to employees as well as the key determinant of employee service delivery behaviour. The findings also show that proximity among managers and employees is crucial in the diffusion of service culture and hence in the leadership influencing process. Based on the findings, managerial implications for managing service employees are discussed as well as limitations and suggestions for future research.

The thesis investigates the ways in which James Baldwin, Alice Walker and Toni Morrison’s fictional portrayals of forms of love, eroticism and sexuality that are excluded or prohibited by social norms, destabilise heteronormativity as the only legitimate option for non-harmful and pleasurable sensual and sexual expression. It aims to situate Baldwin, Walker and Morrison in a continuum of African American authors, beginning with Harlem Renaissance writer Bruce Nugent – the first African American writer to openly explore the relationship between homosexuality and Blackness – that have examined the intertwining issues of transgressive sexuality and race in increasingly explicit ways. By highlighting the ways in which Baldwin, Walker and Morrison decentre heteronormativity, the project aims to uncover how their novels expose the systems of power and knowledge by which racial forms of oppression are maintained, thereby debunking both the notion of Black “authenticity” and Black sexual stereotypes. Finally, the project hopes to show how the process of “queering” heteronormativity in these ways effectively serves to legitimise all forms of love, eroticism and sexuality that are non-harmful, opening up a new trajectory for contemporary twentieth-century authors who delve into these themes. Theoretical Approach: The thesis will argue for a queer reading of Baldwin, Walker and Morrison’s novels that underscores the writers’ treatment of sexuality as a discursive construct. Specifically, this theoretical perspective looks to their legitimisation of alternative forms of love, eroticism and sexuality that are non-harmful – a process that, in each case, serves to counteract and denaturalise White heteronormativity as the only rightful option for sexual desire and practice. Through this approach, the thesis strives to reveal how by working to legitimise such taboo expressions, these writers deconstruct the idea of the “other” as aberrant, thus calling attention to the specific political and moral systems by which love, eroticism and sexuality are judged in the modern Western world. Chapter Break Down: Chapters one and two of the project situate my argument in the context of critical earlier American writing encompassing canonical fiction, including political protest and African American folklorist novels, political polemics, Puritan captivity narratives, slave narratives, political essays, and experimentalist fiction. Together, these chapters provide a detailed overview of discourses surrounding sexuality, considering what is socially determined to be sexually “perverse” as a shifting concept, the meaning of which changes in tandem with changes in social and historical context. They also extensively analyse Black cultural specificity, examining both the sociological genesis of Black sexual stereotypes that led in part to the justification of the modern slave trade and the subsequent impact of slavery on African American sexual practices. In chapter three, the literary analysis begins with a consideration of the broadened possibilities of sexual acceptability Baldwin puts forth in his anti-protest style of fiction, by examining relationships between characters that do not fit conventional racial or sexual stereotypes, their social contexts, and the narrative perspectives employed by the author. Chapter four examines how Walker’s work carries forward Baldwin’s ideas, by further opening up the spectrum of socially acceptable forms of love, eroticism and sexuality through her presentation of an even wider array of erotically transgressive characters, and her effort to write about them during sustained periods of American conservatism. In chapter five, I examine how Morrison complicates the traditional understanding of what constitutes legitimate sexuality by infusing positive elements into sensual and sexual acts that appear to be nothing other than violent, illegal or psychologically regressive, thereby exposing the impact of social and historical context on the individual, further emphasising the changing and discursive nature of sexuality. The thesis finally argues that Baldwin, Walker and Morrison’s particular depictions of alternative sexuality roll back into a bigger idea of human experience that claims as necessary a re-thinking of social norms based on ethical considerations, rather than arbitrary social codes of morality that lead to both racial and sexual discrimination. Their novels thus ultimately involve us in human issues of justice and responsibility beyond the boundaries of race and sexuality.

Multiagent systems offer a design paradigm used to conceptualise and implement systems composed of autonomous agents. Autonomy facilitates proactive independent behaviour yet in practice agents are constrained in order to ensure the system satisfies a desired social objective. Explicit constraints on agent behaviour, in the form of social norms, encourage this desirable system behaviour, yet research has largely focused on norm representation languages and protocols for norm proposal and adoption. The fundamental problem of how to automate the process of norm synthesis has largely been overlooked with norms assumed provided by the designer. Previous work has shown that automating the design of social norms is intractable in the worst case. Existing approaches, relying on state space enumerations, are effective for small systems but impractical for larger ones. Furthermore, they do not produce a set of succinct, general norms but rather a large number of state-specific restrictions. This work presents conflict-rooted synthesis, an automated norm synthesis approach that utilises a planning-based action schemata to overcome these limitations. These action schemata facilitate localised searches around specifications of undesirable states, using representations of sets of system states to avoid a full state enumeration. The proposed technique produces concise, generalised social norms that are applicable in multiple system states while also providing guarantees that agents are still able to achieve their original goals in the constrained system. To improve efficiency a set of theoretically sound, domain-independent optimisations are presented that reduce the state space searched without compromising the quality of the norms synthesised. A comparison with an alternative model checking based technique illustrates the advantages and disadvantages of our approach, while an empirical evaluation highlights the improved efficiency and quality of norms it produces at the cost of a less expressive specification of undesirable states. We empirically investigate the effectiveness of each of the proposed optimisations using a set of benchmark domains, quantifying how successful each of them is at reducing search complexity in practice. The results show that, with all optimisations enabled, conflict-rooted synthesis produces more generally applicable and succinct norms and consumes fewer system resources. Additionally, we show that this approach synthesises norms in systems where the competing approach is intractable. We provide a discussion of our approach, highlighting the impact our abstract search approach has on the fields of multiagent systems and automated planning, and discuss the limitations and assumptions we have made. We conclude with a presentation of future work.

Hong Kong is widely known as a bilingual city. In addition to the locally spoken Cantonese, the vast majority of Hong Kong Chinese people are also able to speak English, the ex-colonial and the international language which has played an important role in the community since the colony was founded. This linguistic situation has given rise to a local variety of English. Recognising the distinct form and function of this variety, scholars (e.g. Bolton 2002, Joseph 2004: 132-161) have argued that the linguistic features in the English spoken by Hong Kong people should be identified as Hong Kong English (HKE). Observing that certain Hong Kong English features specific to computer-mediated communication (CMC) have been developed through communication among bilingual Hong Kong Chinese on the internet, I believe that Hong Kong English in CMC should be seen as a distinct variety. To support my argument, I have, in this thesis, re-examined the notion of linguistic variety. This in turn has required an investigation into the nature of the linguistic norms that define a 'systematically different' form of language. I begin my study by looking at the sociolinguistics of Hong Kong. The distribution of the three main languages – Cantonese, English, and Putonghua – is examined, and Cantonese-English code-mixing is discussed. The focus then turns to the notion of Hong Kong English, and its linguistic features are analysed. Then, the nature of computer-mediated communication is explored. I look at how this context has affected the use of language in general, and HKE specifically. The distinctive HKE features that can only be seen in CMC are examined. I show that Hong Kong English in computer-mediated communication (CHKE) is formally different from HKE in other written contexts. In order to argue that CHKE is a variety of its own, I look at how various scholars define 'variety' and similar notions such as 'language', 'dialect', 'sociolect', and 'register'. Seeing that the concept of norms is essential in determining whether a variety is 'systematically different', I explore the nature of social norms and linguistic norms. A model of norms is proposed, identifying three kinds of linguistic norms: formal norms, contextual norms and identity norms. I present the results of a survey I conducted that aims to elicit Hong Kong people‘s attitudes towards CHKE. Analysis of the data obtained from the survey shows that linguistic norms of CHKE have emerged. Not only is CHKE recognised by its users as a distinct variety, this variety also has an identity marking function that is not seen in other forms of written HKE.

The unifying theme of the chapters presented in this thesis is that intra-group interaction impacts on in-group identity content, and this content provides a foundation for social action and social behaviour. The primary goals of this thesis are first, to demonstrate that social realities can be established and transformed through interaction; and second, to investigate why the process of intra-group interaction can spark and exacerbate social conflict. In Chapter 1, I review and attempt to theoretically integrate the disparate literatures on group discussion, identity and action. In Chapter 2, I investigate the effect of interaction on the positive-negative asymmetry effect (PNAE). In Study 2.1, participants were more likely to discriminate on rewards than fines, and find allocating rewards to be a more legitimate and pleasant act than allocating fines. Conversely, participants thought allocating fines would have a more negative effect on recipients and felt more negative about allocating fines than rewards. In Study 2.2, when in-group advancement was obstructed, no PNAE was found: obstruction was sufficient justification for out-group punishment in its own right. When in-group advancement was not obstructed, the PNAE reversed after group discussion, such that more hostility occurred when participants administered fines than when they awarded rewards. This reversal was mediated by processes of norm formation. In Chapter 3, I describe three studies which show that consensual intra-group discussions about a negatively regarded out-group increased inter-group hostility. Study 3.1 compared group discussion about immigrants with individual reflection. Results showed that group discussion informed the content of stereotypes, which led to support for anti-immigrant policies. In Study 3.2, participants discussed either an irrelevant topic, the out-group stereotype, or the out-group stereotype plus what concrete actions should be taken towards that group. Only discussion of the stereotype significantly increased hostility, suggesting that the psychological products of discussion per se (cohesion, identification, etc.) are not solely responsible for hostility. Rather, social validation of the stereotype explained why its discussion increased hostility. Study 3.3 replicated these results with a behavioural measure. In Chapter 4, I present two studies which controlled for the content of interaction by showing participants short films of similar others having a group discussion. Study 4.1 investigated the paradoxical finding that when groups discuss potential courses of action against an out-group, they are less likely to act than when they discuss simply the out-group stereotype (Chapter 3). Results suggested that when group discussions imply that there is social consensus about a course of action, even the advocacy of extreme actions can increase support for (more moderate) social action. Study 4.2 manipulated whether or not the discussants consensualised on the out-group stereotype, whilst controlling for discussion content. Only when the discussion ended in consensus did participants identify with the discussants and perceive norms for social action. In Chapter 5, I address how social identities and their associated (self-) stereotypes can disadvantage members of low status groups, but how they can also promote social change. The data demonstrates that consensualisation in small groups can transform (or reconfirm) such stereotypes, thereby eliminating (or bolstering) stereotype threat effects. In Study 5.1, female participants were asked why men are (or are not) better at maths. They generated their answers individually or through group discussion. Stereotype threat was undermined only when they collectively challenged the stereotype. Content analyses suggest that discussions redefined in-group and out-group stereotypes, providing the basis for stigma reversal or confirmation. In Study 5.2, male and female participants confirmed or challenged the stereotype in same-gender discussion groups or no discussion, baseline conditions. After a discussion that confirmed the stereotype, women displayed signs of stereotype threat and men’s performance was “lifted”. When they challenged the stereotype, the difference between men and women on the maths test was eliminated. Overall, the results reported in this thesis suggest that intra-group interaction enables group members to develop an understanding of their common ideology, which may establish the consensual basis of their identity content. If such consensualisation occurs, this provides them with a sense that their perceptions of reality are socially valid, and gives rise to (implicit or explicit) in-group norms. This provides individuals with a solid foundation upon which they may act. The implications of these conclusions are discussed in Chapter 6.

Patients who self-harm reported negative staff attitudes towards them on presentation to an Emergency Department (ED). The present research aims to explore staff attitudes and behaviours (own and perception of others’) and the impact of this on behaviour, barriers and facilitators of effective treatment, and team identification and norms. Ten staff members from one ED were interviewed, representing all major professional groups working non-therapeutically in the ED. A thematic framework analysis was applied and cross-referenced with another researcher and participants for validation. Analysis identified the following themes: Beliefs about self-harm, attitudes and behaviours, influences on behaviour, and identity, culture and role; related through an overarching theme of balancing difference and diversity. Evidence of PI was found, although interviewees were able to accurately recognise a mixture of beliefs and attitudes in both themselves and others. Influences on behaviour and identity were important in gaining a contextual perspective, and the concept of a ‘fluid team’, relating to patient needs, was highlighted. Results suggest that exposure of the phenomenon of PI may be useful, in conjunction with training to minimise feelings of failure/frustration. This could increase understanding and improve patient care; however, further research is required prior to this. Team stability must, however, be considered. Limitations included restricted participation across one ED and a powerful advocate for mental health patients. Although this is positive for the department, it may set it apart from others.

Syftet med föreliggande kvalitativa studie var att undersöka unga svenska mödrars upplevelser och erfarenheter av amning för att öka förståelsen för kvinnors subjektiva amningsupplevelse. Studien syftade även till att undersöka hälso- och sjukvårdens och den sociala omgivningens roll i amningsupplevelsen. Nio semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes och analyserades genom tematisk innehållsanalys. Resultatet utgjordes av fem teman: Ömsesidigt utbyte, Oskrivna amningsregler, Att inte klara uppgiften, Någon att vända sig till och När stödet brister. Resultatet visade på informanternas syn på amning som naturlig och det bästa för barnet. Amningen beskrevs vara en viktig del av moderskapet och amningssvårigheter var förknippade med känslor av misslyckande och otillräcklighet. I resultatet framkom hur kvinnorna upplevde en press att amma, från både omgivningen och hälso- och sjukvård. Studien visade även på de unga mödrarnas behov och avsaknad av gemenskap och socialt stöd i relation till amningen. / The aim of this qualitative study was to examine young mothers breastfeeding experiences in order to gain a better understanding of women’s subjective experience.  Furthermore, the purpose of this study was to examine how the health care system and the women’s social environment influenced the breastfeeding experience. Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed by thematic analysis. The analysis resulted in five main themes: Mutual exchange, Unwritten rules of breastfeeding, Unable to manage the task, Someone to turn to and When the support fails you. The results showed the women’s view of breastfeeding as natural and the best option for the child. Breastfeeding was described as an important part of motherhood and breastfeeding difficulties were associated with feelings of failure and inadequacy. The women experienced pressure to breastfeed, both from the health care system as well as their social surroundings. The study showed the young mothers’ lack of and need for social support and sense of belonging in regards to breastfeeding.

Syftet med den här studien är att undersöka vad förskollärare anser om social norm, beteendet hos barn i olika situationer, i förskolan och även om det stämmer överens med hur förskollärarna agerar i praktiken. För att ta reda på detta används både observationer och intervjuer. Tre olika förskolor besöks och tre olika förskollärare blir intervjuade i studien. Resultatet visar på att det finns en social norm över hur barn förväntas bete sig i förskolorna, exempelvis att de inte får springa inomhus. Men även att det kan vara miljön och personalen själva som är främsta orsaken till att ett barn avviker från mängden. Om miljön inomhus har stora och öppna ytor kan barn ta det som en inbjudan till att springa, vilket strider mot normen ”inget spring inomhus”. För att bidra till en lugn och trygg miljö för barnen finns det fasta rutiner och oskrivna regler som förväntas att följas av både barn och vuxna. Sociala normer i förskolan är att rutinerna görs till barnens rutiner. Barn tar efter både vuxna och kamrater, de formas efter hur andra ser på dem, det är därför viktigt att deras positiva sidor stärks istället för deras negativa sidor. Det är när de negativa sidorna stärks som det kan leda till en stämpling av barnet, att det exempelvis är bråkigt. Stämplingen i sin tur gör att det barnet blir själva problemet i stället för att det finns ett problem som kan lösas. Om ett barn ofta är med i olika sorters konflikter kan det av andra personer ses som bråkigt, barnet får en etikett, en osynlig stämpel som bråkigt. Man skulle kunna säga att stämplingen är synsättet man har på en specifik person.