L’athérosclérose est une maladie vasculaire inflammatoire chronique qui se développe progressivement au cours de la vie. Les mécanismes impliqués sont complexes et la recherche de nouveaux candidats impliqués dans l'athérogénèse est toujours d'actualité. L’Angiopoietine-like 2 (Angptl2) est une protéine relativement peu connue, aux propriétés pro-angiogéniques et pro-inflammatoires, qui appartient par homologie à la grande famille des angiopoietines, mais dont le récepteur n'est pas encore clairement identifié. Les situations pathologiques dans lesquelles l’Angptl2 jouerait un rôle crucial sont diverses, mais sa contribution moléculaire dans le développement de l’athérosclérose est inconnue. Par differential display, nous avons initialement identifié l'Angptl2 comme étant surexprimée dans des cellules endothéliales sénescentes, isolées et cultivées à partir d'artères mammaires internes de patients athérosclérotiques ayant subi un pontage coronarien. Cette découverte a été la à base de mon projet, et mes objectifs ont été 1) de déterminer l'implication de l’Angptl2 vasculaire en présence de facteurs de risques tels que le tabagisme et la dyslipidémie, 2) de produire et de purifier une protéine recombinante fonctionnelle de l’Angptl2 afin d'identifier in vitro de nouvelles propriétés cellulaires de l'Angptl2 et 3) d'étudier in vivo le potentiel pro-athérogénique de l'Angptl2 recombinante dans un modèle murin de dyslipidémie sévère. Nous avons montré que l’Angptl2 est sécrétée préférentiellement dans des conditions pro-oxydantes et pro-inflammatoires, avec une augmentation de son expression endothéliale de l’ordre de 6 fois chez des patients coronariens fumeurs atteints de maladie pulmonaire obstructive chronique. Suite à ces résultats, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’Angptl2, en plus de ses fonctions pro-inflammatoires connues, possède des propriétés pro-oxydantes. Nous avons démontré que l’Angptl2 recombinante stimule en effet la production de radicaux libres dans des HUVEC en culture, via l’inhibition partielle de la voie cytoprotectrice antioxydante Nrf2/HO-1 et potentiellement via l'activation de kinase intracellulaire de type p38. A l'aide de souris dyslipidémiques LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+, nous avons démontré que le niveau d’Angptl2 plasmatique, vasculaire et dans les plaques athéromateuses, augmente parallèlement avec le développement de l’athérosclérose. De plus, une stimulation avec l’Angptl2 recombinante engendre chez ces souris une réponse inflammatoire évaluée par l’expression endothéliale de cytokines et de molécules d'adhésion et par l’infiltration de leucocytes sur l’endothélium vasculaire. Finalement, l’administration intraveineuse de la protéine recombinante d’Angptl2 pendant quatre semaines à des souris LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ augmente de 10 fois l'expansion de la plaque athérosclérotique et double leur taux de cholestérol circulant. Nous avons aussi montré que chez des patients athérosclérotiques, l'Angptl2 plasmatique est 6 fois plus élevée que chez des sujets sains du même âge. Nos études semblent donc définir l’Angptl2 comme un facteur contribuant directement au développement de l'athérosclérose en favorisant la sénescence, l’inflammation et l’oxydation des cellules endothéliales. Ces propriétés pourraient globalement définir l'Angptl2, non seulement comme un nouveau biomarqueur circulant de l’athérosclérose, mais également comme l'un de ses promoteurs. / Atherosclerosis is a chronic vascular inflammatory disease that develops gradually during life. While the control mechanisms of this disease are complex and variable, research continues to identify new protein candidates involved in atherogenesis. Angiopoietin-like2 (Angptl2) is a relatively unknown protein, recently shown to display angiogenic and pro-inflammatory properties. Based upon structural homology, Angptl2 is a member of the angiopoietin family; however, the Angptl2 receptor has not yet been clearly identified. The reported pathological situations in which Angptl2 may play a crucial role are multiple, but its molecular contribution in the development of atherosclerosis remains unknown. By differential display, we initially identified Angptl2 as being overexpressed in senescent endothelial cells, isolated and cultivated from internal mammary arteries of atherosclerotic patients undergoing coronary bypass. This observation was at the basis of my project. My specific objectives were 1) to determine the abundance of vascular Angptl2 in the presence of risk factors such as smoking and dyslipidemia, 2) to produce and purify a functional recombinant human Angptl2 protein in order to examine its effects on cellular function in vitro, and 3) to study the pro-atherogenic potential of Angptl2 in vivo using a mouse model of severe dyslipidemia. We showed that Angptl2 is preferentially secreted under pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory conditions, with a 6-fold increase in endothelial Angptl2 expression in smoker coronary patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Based on these results, we hypothesized that, in addition to its known pro-inflammatory functions, Angptl2 has pro-oxidant properties. Accordingly, we demonstrated that recombinant Angptl2 stimulates the production of free radicals by HUVEC, an action exerted, at least in part, by the inhibition of the cytoprotective antioxidant pathway, Nrf2/HO-1, and potentially via the activation of the intracellular p38 MAPK pathway. In dyslipidemic LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ mice, we showed that the levels of endogenous Angptl2 in plasma, vascular tissue and atherosclerotic lesions increase in parallel with the development of atherosclerosis. In addition, stimulation with recombinant Angptl2 induces an inflammatory response, as assessed by the expression of cytokines and adhesion molecules and by infiltration of leukocytes into the vascular endothelium. Furthermore, intravenous infusion of purified recombinant Angptl2 for four weeks promoted a 10-fold increase in the formation of atherosclerotic plaques in LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ mice and doubled their circulating cholesterol levels. Finally, we also demonstrated that plasma Angptl2 is 6-fold higher in atherosclerotic patients than in age-matched healthy subjects. These studies therefore strongly suggest that Angptl2 could directly contribute to the development of atherosclerosis by promoting senescence, inflammation and oxidation in endothelial cells. Such properties indicate that Angptl2 may be both a new biomarker of atherosclerosis, as well as one of its contributors.

L’athérosclérose est une maladie vasculaire inflammatoire chronique qui se développe progressivement au cours de la vie. Les mécanismes impliqués sont complexes et la recherche de nouveaux candidats impliqués dans l'athérogénèse est toujours d'actualité. L’Angiopoietine-like 2 (Angptl2) est une protéine relativement peu connue, aux propriétés pro-angiogéniques et pro-inflammatoires, qui appartient par homologie à la grande famille des angiopoietines, mais dont le récepteur n'est pas encore clairement identifié. Les situations pathologiques dans lesquelles l’Angptl2 jouerait un rôle crucial sont diverses, mais sa contribution moléculaire dans le développement de l’athérosclérose est inconnue. Par differential display, nous avons initialement identifié l'Angptl2 comme étant surexprimée dans des cellules endothéliales sénescentes, isolées et cultivées à partir d'artères mammaires internes de patients athérosclérotiques ayant subi un pontage coronarien. Cette découverte a été la à base de mon projet, et mes objectifs ont été 1) de déterminer l'implication de l’Angptl2 vasculaire en présence de facteurs de risques tels que le tabagisme et la dyslipidémie, 2) de produire et de purifier une protéine recombinante fonctionnelle de l’Angptl2 afin d'identifier in vitro de nouvelles propriétés cellulaires de l'Angptl2 et 3) d'étudier in vivo le potentiel pro-athérogénique de l'Angptl2 recombinante dans un modèle murin de dyslipidémie sévère. Nous avons montré que l’Angptl2 est sécrétée préférentiellement dans des conditions pro-oxydantes et pro-inflammatoires, avec une augmentation de son expression endothéliale de l’ordre de 6 fois chez des patients coronariens fumeurs atteints de maladie pulmonaire obstructive chronique. Suite à ces résultats, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’Angptl2, en plus de ses fonctions pro-inflammatoires connues, possède des propriétés pro-oxydantes. Nous avons démontré que l’Angptl2 recombinante stimule en effet la production de radicaux libres dans des HUVEC en culture, via l’inhibition partielle de la voie cytoprotectrice antioxydante Nrf2/HO-1 et potentiellement via l'activation de kinase intracellulaire de type p38. A l'aide de souris dyslipidémiques LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+, nous avons démontré que le niveau d’Angptl2 plasmatique, vasculaire et dans les plaques athéromateuses, augmente parallèlement avec le développement de l’athérosclérose. De plus, une stimulation avec l’Angptl2 recombinante engendre chez ces souris une réponse inflammatoire évaluée par l’expression endothéliale de cytokines et de molécules d'adhésion et par l’infiltration de leucocytes sur l’endothélium vasculaire. Finalement, l’administration intraveineuse de la protéine recombinante d’Angptl2 pendant quatre semaines à des souris LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ augmente de 10 fois l'expansion de la plaque athérosclérotique et double leur taux de cholestérol circulant. Nous avons aussi montré que chez des patients athérosclérotiques, l'Angptl2 plasmatique est 6 fois plus élevée que chez des sujets sains du même âge. Nos études semblent donc définir l’Angptl2 comme un facteur contribuant directement au développement de l'athérosclérose en favorisant la sénescence, l’inflammation et l’oxydation des cellules endothéliales. Ces propriétés pourraient globalement définir l'Angptl2, non seulement comme un nouveau biomarqueur circulant de l’athérosclérose, mais également comme l'un de ses promoteurs. / Atherosclerosis is a chronic vascular inflammatory disease that develops gradually during life. While the control mechanisms of this disease are complex and variable, research continues to identify new protein candidates involved in atherogenesis. Angiopoietin-like2 (Angptl2) is a relatively unknown protein, recently shown to display angiogenic and pro-inflammatory properties. Based upon structural homology, Angptl2 is a member of the angiopoietin family; however, the Angptl2 receptor has not yet been clearly identified. The reported pathological situations in which Angptl2 may play a crucial role are multiple, but its molecular contribution in the development of atherosclerosis remains unknown. By differential display, we initially identified Angptl2 as being overexpressed in senescent endothelial cells, isolated and cultivated from internal mammary arteries of atherosclerotic patients undergoing coronary bypass. This observation was at the basis of my project. My specific objectives were 1) to determine the abundance of vascular Angptl2 in the presence of risk factors such as smoking and dyslipidemia, 2) to produce and purify a functional recombinant human Angptl2 protein in order to examine its effects on cellular function in vitro, and 3) to study the pro-atherogenic potential of Angptl2 in vivo using a mouse model of severe dyslipidemia. We showed that Angptl2 is preferentially secreted under pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory conditions, with a 6-fold increase in endothelial Angptl2 expression in smoker coronary patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Based on these results, we hypothesized that, in addition to its known pro-inflammatory functions, Angptl2 has pro-oxidant properties. Accordingly, we demonstrated that recombinant Angptl2 stimulates the production of free radicals by HUVEC, an action exerted, at least in part, by the inhibition of the cytoprotective antioxidant pathway, Nrf2/HO-1, and potentially via the activation of the intracellular p38 MAPK pathway. In dyslipidemic LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ mice, we showed that the levels of endogenous Angptl2 in plasma, vascular tissue and atherosclerotic lesions increase in parallel with the development of atherosclerosis. In addition, stimulation with recombinant Angptl2 induces an inflammatory response, as assessed by the expression of cytokines and adhesion molecules and by infiltration of leukocytes into the vascular endothelium. Furthermore, intravenous infusion of purified recombinant Angptl2 for four weeks promoted a 10-fold increase in the formation of atherosclerotic plaques in LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ mice and doubled their circulating cholesterol levels. Finally, we also demonstrated that plasma Angptl2 is 6-fold higher in atherosclerotic patients than in age-matched healthy subjects. These studies therefore strongly suggest that Angptl2 could directly contribute to the development of atherosclerosis by promoting senescence, inflammation and oxidation in endothelial cells. Such properties indicate that Angptl2 may be both a new biomarker of atherosclerosis, as well as one of its contributors.

L’expression ‘programmation périnatale’ est employée pour décrire les effets à long terme d’un environnement gestationel néfaste observés chez la progéniture. Ce concept est aujourd’hui bien reconnu. Notre laboratoire a déjà démontré l’impact de l’hyperglycémie maternelle sur le développement rénal des embryons à l’aide des souris HoxB7-GFP transgéniques (Tg) et qui se traduit par une augmentation des espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ROS) et une néphrogenèse perturbée. Les rejetons affectés présentent ainsi des reins plus petits et possédant un nombre inférieur de néphrons à la naissance, et développent une hypertension et des dommages rénaux à l’âge adulte (20 semaines). Dans la première étude, nous avons tenté de réduire la production excessive de ROS dans les reins en développement par la surexpression de la catalase (CAT). Pour ce faire, nous avons croisé les souris CAT-Tg qui surexpriment la CAT dans les cellules des tubules proximaux rénaux (RPTCs) aux souris HoxB7-GFP-Tg afin de générer les souris HoxB7/CAT-GFP-Tg. Nous espérons observer la normalisation du nombre de néphrons et la prévention de l’hypertension et des dommages rénaux observés chez la progéniture issue d’un environnement gestational hyperglycémique. Nous avons observé que la surexpression de CAT dans les RPTCs permet de normaliser la dysmorphogenèse rénale présente chez les embryons de mères diabétiques. À l’âge adulte, la surexpression de CAT dans les RPTCs permet également de réduire la génération des ROS et l’hypertension, tout en améliorant la morphologie et la fonction rénale. Afin de définir les mécanismes impliqués dans ce processus, nous avons étudié le rôle potentiel de Nrf2 (‘nuclear factor-erythroid 2p45 (NF-E2) related factor-2’; un facteur de transcription des gènes antioxidants) et HO-1 (hème oxygénase-1’; une enzyme antioxidante). À la fois Nrf2 et HO-1 sont de forts antioxidants et ont été rapportés comme protecteurs pour le rein. Nous avons observé une surexpression des gènes et protéines Nrf2 et HO-1, en plus d’une translocation nucléaire accrue de Nrf2, dans les RPTCs de la progéniture des mères diabétiques, indiquant que chez les souris surexprimant CAT, Nrf2 et HO-1 sont tous deux bien activés et fonctionnels. En conclusion, nos études suggèrent que la surexpression de CAT dans les RPTCs permet de prévenir la programmation de l’hypertension et les dommages rénaux observés à l’âge adulte chez la progéniture issue de mères diabétiques, en partie suite à l’activation du système de défense Nrf2-HO-1 dans leurs reins. Il a déjà été démontré que l’activation du système rénine-angiotensine (RAS) intrarénal induit l’hypertension en augmentant la constriction des artérioles et la réabsorption du sodium par les tubules rénaux. Une activation du récepteur AT1R et de ses voies de signalisation induit également les dommages rénaux observés dans plusieurs pathologies. Dans le cadre de mon second article, nous avons identifié un nouveau mécanisme par lequel l’angiotensine (Agt) intrarénale induit l’hypertension et des dommages rénaux en réduisant l’expression de l’aquaporine 1 (AQP1, le canal pour l’eau le plus important dans les RPTCs). Des souris transgéniques surexprimant l’Agt de rat (rAgt-Tg) dans leurs RPTCs et des clones stables de cellules immortalisées de tubule proximal de rein de rat (IRPTCs) surexprimant le rAgt (pRSV/rAgt-IRPTC) ont été étudiés. Lorsque comparés aux souris non-transgéniques, les souris rAgt-Tg développent de l’hypertension et des dommages rénaux. Ces changements sont atténués par le traitement avec une double inhibition du RAS (losartan et perindopril). L’expression des protéines AQP1 et HO-1 est réduite dans les RPTCs, tandis que Nrf2 et le transporteur sodique NHE3 sont augmentés, à la fois in vivo et in vitro. Ces changements sont renversés par la double inhibition du RAS chez les animaux expérimentaux. Même si les niveaux de Nrf2 sont élevés, une accumulation cytosolique causée par une augmentation de l’export nucléaire induit par GSK3β se produit et ne parvient donc pas à induire l’expression des gènes en aval comme HO-1, ni à réduire l’expression de l’AQP1. En conclusion, nos résultats suggèrent qu’une déficience en Nrf2 nucléaire mène à une diminution de l’expression de HO-1 et une régulation négative de l’AQP1, jouant un role dans l’hypertension et les dommages rénaux induits par l’Agt intrarénal. L’hypertension et les dommages rénaux sont des maladies très hétérogènes et multifactorielles qui impliquent l’interaction de diverses molécules et voies de signalisations, et sont influencées par plusieurs facteurs environnementaux tels la diète ou la programmation périnatale. Tous ces différents facteurs contribuent à la progression de l’hypertension et des dommages rénaux, rendant les stratégies de traitement d’autant plus complexes. Dans notre étude, nous avons évalué le développement de l’hypertension dans deux circonstances : l’hypertension de la progéniture programmée par le diabète maternel et l’hypertension induite par l’activation du RAS intrarénal. Nous avons démontré que la génération des ROS dans les reins constitue un facteur majeur commun dans nos deux modèles d’hypertension chez la souris. De plus, le gène/facteur de transcription antioxydant Nrf2, sensible aux ROS, joue un rôle important dans le processus. Grâce à une meilleure compréhension des diverses voies qui mènent à la progression de l’hypertension, nous espérons qu’il sera possible de développer de meilleurs traitements pour faire face à l’hypertension. / The term ‘perinatal programming’ is used to describe the phenomenon that maternal adverse environment during pregnancies which have profound influences to their offspring later in life. And this concept is well accepted. Previously, we successfully created an in vivo murine model and demonstrated that maternal diabetes constitutes an adverse in utero environment that may fundamentally impair nephrogenesis and subsequently program of the offspring to develop hypertension and kidney injury in adulthood. It appears that enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB), intrarenal renin- angiotensin system (RAS) and p53 pathways were involved in the underlying mechanisms. In our first study, we investigated whether overexpression of catalase (CAT) in renal proximal tubular cells (RPTCs) could prevent the perinatal programming of hypertension and kidney injury in male offspring of diabetic dams and examined the potential underlying mechanisms both in vivo and in vitro. Our data demonstrate that CAT overexpression in RPTCs exert a direct effect on nephrogenesis in utero and ameliorate maternal diabetes- induced dysnephrogenesis. And further consequently, CAT overexpression in RPTCs preventing maternal diabetes-induced perinatal programming, mediated at least in part, via the nuclear factor-erythroid 2p45 (NF-E2) related factor-2 (Nrf2)- heme oxygenase (HO)- 1 defense system. Intrarenal RAS activation has attracted more attention in recent years due to studies have been reported that activation of the intrarenal RAS can elicit hypertension and kidney injury independently from the systemic RAS. Previously, we established a murine model (Agt-Tg) that specifically overexpress rat angiotensinogen (Agt) in their RPTCs and develops hypertension and nephropathy. Aquaporin 1 (AQP1) is the major water channel within renal RPTCs, but whether it has a regulatory role in the development of hypertension and nephropathy remains elusive. Our second study aimed to examine the regulation of AQP1 expression in an intrarenal RAS-induced hypertension and kidney injury, focusing on underlying molecular mechanisms. We believe that both our in vivo and in vitro studies identified a novel mechanism(s) in which Agt overexpression in RPTCs enhances cytosolic accumulation of Nrf2 via the phosphorylation of pGSK3β Y216. Consequently, less intranuclear Nrf2 is available to trigger HO-1 expression as a defense mechanism and subsequently diminishes AQP1 expression in RPTCs. In conclusion, our data suggest that Agt mediated-downregulation of AQP1 and Nrf2 signaling may play an important role in intrarenal RAS-induced hypertension and kidney injury. Hypertension and kidney injury is a heterogeneous and multifactorial disease that involves the interaction of various molecules/pathways and the influence of environmental factors, for instance, diet and perinatal programming. Such diverse causes contribute to the progression of hypertension and kidney disease, making the strategy of treatment even more complex. In our present study, we evaluated the development of hypertension under two circumstances: maternal diabetes-programmed hypertension in offspring and intrarenal RAS activation-induced hypertension. We found that ROS generation in the kidneys is a major and common factor in both hypertensive mice model. Also, the ROS-sensitive antioxidant gene/transcription factor – Nrf2, plays an important role in the process. By understanding the pathways that lead to hypertension progression, we can hopefully develop more effective treatments to cope with the disease.

Activation of mammalian stress responsive pathways by plant secondary metabolites may contribute to the protection against certain chronic diseases afforded by fruit and vegetable consumption. This work focuses on the identification of plant compounds that activate the stress-responsive enzyme quinone reductase (QR) by stabilizing the transcription factor NF-E2 related factor-2 (Nrf2). Screening methanolic extracts of plants from Western Canada for QR induction in a mouse hepatoma cell line (Hepa-1c1c7) led to the identification of twenty-one extracts capable of doubling the activity of QR. Bioassay-guided fractionation of six extracts led to the identification of novel classes of compounds with QR-inducing activity including fatty-acid derived polyacetylenes, phthalides, and cannabinoids. Studies using low molecular weight thiols and the recombinantly expressed protein Keap1, the principal negative regulator of Nrf2, supported a mechanism of QR activation involving covalent modification of Keap1 cysteines for the polyacetylenes and phthalides. Analysis of transcriptional changes in response to treatment with a panel of QR-inducing compounds provided strong support for Nrf2 activation by the polyacetylene (3S,8S)-falcarindiol and the isothiocyanate (R)-sulforaphane and weaker support for the compounds (3R,8S)-falcarindiol, 6-isovaleryl-umbelliferone (6-IVU) and (Z)-ligustilide. Additionally, transcript level analyses supported a role for the aryl-hydrocarbon receptor in QR-activation by (3R,8S)-falcarindiol, (Z)-ligustilide, (R)-sulforaphane, 6-IVU and cannabidiol and suggested that treatment with polyacetylenes with a (3R)-configuration, (Z)-ligustilide and 6-IVU causes substantial changes in the expression of genes associated with lipid homeostasis and energy metabolism. As a whole, this work provides evidence that compounds that activate QR (and Nrf2) are widely distributed in the Canadian flora. However, of these QR activators, few are active at concentrations that are expected to be achieved through dietary consumption. Nevertheless, the most exceptional compounds isolated in this work, the compounds (3S,8S)-falcarindiol and epoxyfalcarindiol are highly potent and appear to be or are expected to be specific for activating Nrf2 and thus warrant attention with respect to dietary implications and as drug candidate leads.

Abstract The hepatic inducible Cytochrome P450s (CYPs) generally prime xenobiotics for elimination. Murine CYP2A5 and human CYP2A6 share similar xenobiotic substrates and some regulatory features. Recently, they were shown to oxidize bilirubin, a byproduct of heme catabolism and a dose-dependent anti- or pro-oxidant, to biliverdin. In this study, the putative role of the redox-sensitive, cytoprotective transcription factor Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) in the regulation of hepatic Cyp2a5 expression and induction under diverse hepatotoxic conditions and altered heme homeostasis was characterized. The coordination of Cyp2a5 and the Nrf2 target gene Heme oxygenase-1 (Hmox1), which determines bilirubin formation from heme, responses to heavy metals and modulators of heme homeostasis, was studied in cultured wildtype and Nrf2(-/-) mouse primary hepatocytes. Nrf2 was essential for the basal hepatic expression of CYP2A5 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria, as well as for its induction by cadmium, lead, methyl mercury and phenethyl isothiocyanate. A functional Nrf2 binding antioxidant response element (ARE) about -2.4 kilobases upstream of the Cyp2a5 transcriptional start site was identified. In contrast to Hmox1, a target of BTB and CNC homology 1 (Bach)-mediated repression via AREs, the regulation of Cyp2a5 did not clearly involve Bach1. Excessive heme induced mainly ER-localized CYP2A5 via Nrf2, which was limited by the Nrf2-independent HMOX1 induction. In heme synthesis blockades, CYP2A5 was enhanced via Nrf2 and additional factors, such as the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α). The typical CYP2A5 inducers phenobarbital, dibutyryl-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (db-cAMP) and PGC-1α enhance heme synthesis; CYP2A5 was induced via Nrf2 in acute but not chronic phenobarbital exposure without a clear connection to heme, while the responses to db-cAMP and PGC-1α were sensitized in the absence of Nrf2. This suggests novel crosstalk between Nrf2 and PGC-1α. In this study, Cyp2a5 was identified as a sensitive indicator of hepatic Nrf2 pathway activation that could be used, e.g. for in vitro screening of drug candidate hepatotoxicity. The similar subcellular localization and coordination of CYP2A5 and HMOX1 expression in altered heme metabolism support the postulated role for CYP2A5 in bilirubin homeostasis. / Tiivistelmä Vierasaineet stimuloivat maksan Sytokromi P450 (CYP)-entsyymejä, mikä yleensä lisää niiden eliminaatiota. Hiiren CYP2A5 ja ihmisen CYP2A6 ovat lähisukua katalyyttisten ja osin säätelyllisten yhteneväisyyksiensä puolesta. Vastikään niiden osoitettiin katalysoivan hemin hajoamistuotteen, bilirubiinin hapettumista biliverdiiniksi, mikä saattaisi säädellä sen annosriippuvaisia vaikutuksia antioksidanttina ja oksidanttina. Työssä tutkittiin solustressiä aistivan, suojaavan transkriptiotekijän Nrf2 osuutta Cyp2a5-geenin aktivaatiossa maksatoksisissa olosuhteissa ja hemimetabolian muutoksissa. Cyp2a5:n ja bilirubiinin tuotosta vastaavan, Nrf2-säädellyn Hemioksigenaasi-1 (Hmox1):n vasteita verrattiin viljellyissä villityypin ja poistogeenisen Nrf2(-/-) hiiren primaarimaksasoluissa. Tulokset osoittavat, että Nrf2 ylläpitää CYP2A5:n ilmentymistä endoplasmisella kalvostolla (ER) ja mitokondrioissa sekä välittää sen stimulaation altisteilla kadmium, lyijy, metyylielohopea ja fenetyyli-isotiosyanaatti. Toimiva Nrf2-vasteinen antioksidanttivaste-elementti (ARE) tunnistettiin n. -2,4 kiloemäsparia Cyp2a5-geenin luennan aloituskohdasta ylävirtaan. BTB ja CNC homologia 1 (Bach1)-tekijä, joka on tärkeä Hmox1-säätelijä ja ARE-välitteinen transkription estäjä, ei selkeästi osallistu Cyp2a5:n säätelyyn. Hemin ylimäärä stimuloi CYP2A5:n määrää ER-kalvostolla, Nrf2-riippumattomasti stimuloituvan HMOX1 rajoittaessa Nrf2-reitin aktivaatiota. Hemisynteesin estyessä Nrf2 aktivoi Cyp2a5-geeniä muiden mekanismien kuten peroksisomiproliferaattori-aktivoituva reseptori gamman koaktivaattori-1α (PGC-1α) kanssa. Fenobarbitaali (PB), dibutyryyli-syklinen adenosiinimonofosfaatti (db-cAMP) ja PGC-1α lisäävät tunnetusti hemisynteesiä. Nrf2 havaittiin Cyp2a5:n aktivaatiolle välttämättömäksi akuutissa mutta ei kroonisessa PB-altistuksessa ilman selkeästi havaittua hemin osuutta. Cyp2a5-geenin db-cAMP- ja PGC-1α-vasteinen stimulaatio voimistui merkittävästi toimivan Nrf2-reitin puuttuessa, mikä osoittaa vuoropuhelua Nrf2 ja PGC-1α välillä. Väitöskirjatyössä Cyp2a5 tunnistettiin herkäksi Nrf2-reitin aktivaation maksamarkkeriksi, jota voitaisiin hyödyntää esim. lääkeainekandidaattien maksatoksisuuden seulonnassa soluviljelyssä. CYP2A5:n ja HMOX1:n solunsisäinen kohdentuminen ja ekspressio koordinoituvat hemimetabolian muutoksissa, mikä tukee teoriaa CYP2A5:n roolista bilirubiinin metaboliassa maksassa.

Alcohol consumption causes liver diseases, designated as Alcoholic Liver Disease (ALD). Because alcohol is detoxified by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), a major ethanol metabolism system, the development of ALD was initially believed to be due to malnutrition caused by alcohol metabolism in liver. The discovery of the microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS) changed this dogma. Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) constitute the major components of MEOS. Cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) in MEOS is one of the major ROS generators in liver and is considered to be contributive to ALD. Our labs have been studying the relationship between CYP2E1 and ALD for many years. Recently, we found that human CYP2A6 and its mouse analog CYP2A5 are also induced by alcohol. In mice, the alcohol induction of CYP2A5 is CYP2E1-dependent. Unlike CYP2E1, CYP2A5 protects against the development of ALD. The relationship of CYP2E1, CYP2A5, and ALD is a major focus of this review.

No description available.

Exposure to toxic bile acids (BA) and retinoic acids (RA) is implicated in toxicities related to excessive oxidative stress. This thesis examined roles and mechanisms of the oxidative stress-responsive nuclear factor (erythroid 2-like) factor 2 (Nrf2) in adaptive cell defense against BA and RA toxicities. Using liver cells and mouse models, many antioxidant proteins known to be Nrf2 target genes, particularly the rate-limiting enzyme for glutathione (GSH) biosynthesis, i.e., glutamate-cysteine ligase subunits (GCLM/GCLC), were induced by BA [lithocholic acid (LCA)] or RA (all-trans, 9-cis and 13-cis) treatment. Evidence for increased Nrf2 transactivation by LCA and all-trans-RA was exemplified in HepG2 by: (1) reduced constitutive and inducible expression of GCLM/GCLC upon Nrf2 silencing via small-interfering RNA; (2) increased inducible expression of GCLM/GCLC genes by Nrf2 overexpression, but overexpression of dominant-negative Nrf2 decreased it; (3) increased nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 as signature event of receptor activation; (4) enhanced Nrf2-dependent antioxidant-response-element (ARE) reporter activity as indicative of increased Nrf2 transactivation; and (5) increased Nrf2 occupancy to AREs of GCLM and GCLC. Additionally, in BA-treated HepG2 cells, we observed concomitant increases of many ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters (MRPs 1-5, MDR1 and BCRP) in parallel with increased cellular efflux. Nrf2 silencing in HepG2 cells decreased constitutive and inducible expression of MRP2, MRP3 and ABCG2. However, Nrf2-silenced mouse hepatoma cells, Hepa1c1c7, and Nrf2-/- mice had decreased constitutive and/or inducible expression of Mrps 1-4, suggesting species differences in Nrf2-dependent regulation of hepatic ABC transporters. Protection by Nrf2 against BA and RA toxicities was confirmed by observations that Nrf2 silencing increased cell susceptibility to BA- and RA-induced cell death. Moreover, Nrf2-/- mice suffered more severe liver injury than the wildtype. Increased GSH and efflux activity following increased GCLM/GCLC and ABC transporters, respectively, can mitigate LCA toxicity. Activation of MEK1-ERK1/2 MAPK was shown to primarily mediate Nrf2 transactivation and LCA-induced expression of antioxidant proteins and Nrf2-dependent and -independent ABC transporters. In conclusion, Nrf2 activation by BA and RA led to coordinated induction of antioxidant and ABC proteins, thereby counteracting resultant oxidative cytotoxicity. The potential of targeting Nrf2 in management of BA and RA toxicities merits further investigation.

Exposure to toxic bile acids (BA) and retinoic acids (RA) is implicated in toxicities related to excessive oxidative stress. This thesis examined roles and mechanisms of the oxidative stress-responsive nuclear factor (erythroid 2-like) factor 2 (Nrf2) in adaptive cell defense against BA and RA toxicities. Using liver cells and mouse models, many antioxidant proteins known to be Nrf2 target genes, particularly the rate-limiting enzyme for glutathione (GSH) biosynthesis, i.e., glutamate-cysteine ligase subunits (GCLM/GCLC), were induced by BA [lithocholic acid (LCA)] or RA (all-trans, 9-cis and 13-cis) treatment. Evidence for increased Nrf2 transactivation by LCA and all-trans-RA was exemplified in HepG2 by: (1) reduced constitutive and inducible expression of GCLM/GCLC upon Nrf2 silencing via small-interfering RNA; (2) increased inducible expression of GCLM/GCLC genes by Nrf2 overexpression, but overexpression of dominant-negative Nrf2 decreased it; (3) increased nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 as signature event of receptor activation; (4) enhanced Nrf2-dependent antioxidant-response-element (ARE) reporter activity as indicative of increased Nrf2 transactivation; and (5) increased Nrf2 occupancy to AREs of GCLM and GCLC. Additionally, in BA-treated HepG2 cells, we observed concomitant increases of many ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters (MRPs 1-5, MDR1 and BCRP) in parallel with increased cellular efflux. Nrf2 silencing in HepG2 cells decreased constitutive and inducible expression of MRP2, MRP3 and ABCG2. However, Nrf2-silenced mouse hepatoma cells, Hepa1c1c7, and Nrf2-/- mice had decreased constitutive and/or inducible expression of Mrps 1-4, suggesting species differences in Nrf2-dependent regulation of hepatic ABC transporters. Protection by Nrf2 against BA and RA toxicities was confirmed by observations that Nrf2 silencing increased cell susceptibility to BA- and RA-induced cell death. Moreover, Nrf2-/- mice suffered more severe liver injury than the wildtype. Increased GSH and efflux activity following increased GCLM/GCLC and ABC transporters, respectively, can mitigate LCA toxicity. Activation of MEK1-ERK1/2 MAPK was shown to primarily mediate Nrf2 transactivation and LCA-induced expression of antioxidant proteins and Nrf2-dependent and -independent ABC transporters. In conclusion, Nrf2 activation by BA and RA led to coordinated induction of antioxidant and ABC proteins, thereby counteracting resultant oxidative cytotoxicity. The potential of targeting Nrf2 in management of BA and RA toxicities merits further investigation.

POPULAR SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is not your average disorder. It behaves like a mischievous troublemaker, wreaking havoc throughout the body, causing inflammation that affects multiple organs. SLE presents a puzzle that keeps health care professionals worldwide intrigued, searching for answers amidst its complex of immunologic manifestations and clinical symptoms. While we’ve made progress in understanding SLE, its specific cause remains a mystery. What we do know is that SLE triggers a fascinating interplay between genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors in susceptible individuals. Macrophages, specialized white blood cells, can be likened to moody actors on a stage wearing different masks and wielding functional props. Among them are M1 macrophages, fiery troublemakers who provoke pro-inflammatory responses, and M2 macrophages, peacemakers striving for balance by generating anti-inflammatory responses. Then there is NRF2, the vigilante, normally held by its captor, KEAP1. However, when cells stress NRF2 manages to break free from KEAP1 and spring into action, embarking on a crucial journey into the cell nucleus where DNA is stored. Once inside, NRF2 binds specific regions of the DNA, promoting genes associated with protective activities, including antioxidative responses and detoxification processes, thereby shielding cells from further harm. Now, let us envision a therapeutic strategy that utilizes this; if we can deliberately unleashNRF2 on command, triggering a powerful cascade of antioxidative responses throughout the body,such a treatment would offer tremendous promise and serve as a paradigm for patients sufferingfrom chronic inflammation. But the question remains: Is it possible? In this study, we investigated the effects of certain chemicals on macrophages in a controlledlab environment. Our goal was to explore their potential for therapeutic purposes. Excitingly, wediscovered that these chemicals can indeed influence macrophages to produce a stronger antiinflammatory and antioxidant response. These findings could be promising for developing futuretreatments, especially in patients diagnosed with conditions such as SLE. / ABSTRACT Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multifaceted, chronic autoimmune disorder that leads to inflammation and affects various organs. A wide range of immunologic manifestations and clinical symptoms characterizes SLE. While the specific cause remains unknown, it is thought to result from a combination of genetic susceptibility and the intricate interplay between environmental and hormonal factors. A significant subset of SLE patients also experience renal manifestation, lupus nephritis (LN), characterized by distinct inflammatory responses in which macrophages play a role. Macrophages exhibit different functional characteristics depending on their environment, and generally display two contrasting phenotypes; M1, which elicits proinflammatory responses, and M2, which generates anti-inflammatory responses Homeostasis is vital, yet environmental stress is inevitable. NRF2, a transcription factor known for its involvement in oxidative stress response, plays a pivotal role. Under basal conditions, NRF2 resides in the cytoplasm and is targeted for degradation by the protein KEAP1. However, during cellular stress, the NRF2-KEAP1 complex dissociates, allowing NRF2 to translocate into the nucleus where it binds specific regulatory regions of genes that promote cytoprotective activities. The NRF2 pathway has gained attention as a potential target for therapeutic strategies in inflammatory conditions, including SLE. This study aimed to assess the effects of certain chemical NRF2 activators and a KEAP1 inhibitor on an in vitro model of M1 and M2 macrophage polarization. The objective was to investigate whether these compounds could enhance antioxidative response. To evaluate this, key genes and proteins involved in antioxidative pathways were analyzed. Gene expression was assessed using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), and protein presence was determined through immunohistochemistry (IHC) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The findings of this study indicate that stimulation of macrophage subgroups with the selected compounds promotes a shift towards anti-inflammatory and antioxidative response. / <p>Rektor tilldelade Leo Svahn stipendie Österby för <em>välartade obemedlade studier</em>.</p>