On a routine and daily basis, women are exposed to sexually objectifying experiences, which result in a number of harmful psychosocial outcomes (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Five-hundred and forty-sex women attending a large, Southeastern university participated in this study that investigated a conceptual model of how childhood sexual abuse (CSA) contributes to sexual risk behaviors (SRBs) via self-objectification (S0). In order to assess the causal relationships among variables, measured variable path analyses were conducted in order to test two theoretical models. The following instruments were used in this investigation: the Sexual Abuse Subscale of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (a measure assessing experiences of childhood sexual abuse [Bernstein, Stein, Newcomb, Walker, Pogge, Ahluvia et al., 2003]); the Body Surveillance Subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (a measure assessing self-objectification [McKinley & Hyde, 1996]); the Body Shame Subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (a measure assessing body shame [McKinley & Hyde, 1996]); the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 (assesses alexithymic symptoms, or difficulty identifying, describing, and expressing one’s emotions [Bagby, Parker, & Taylor, 1994]), the Contraceptive Self-Efficacy Scale (assesses overall sexual self-efficacy, such as the ability to insist upon sexual protection [Levinson, 1986]), and the Sexual Risk Survey (assesses risky sexual practices [Turkchik & Garske, 2009]). Results revealed that the data fit the second model better than the first. Specifically, data revealed that CSA directly predicted SRBs and was not mediated via SO, but was partially mediated by alexithymia and body shame. That is, CSA predicted increased alexithymia and body shame. Increased alexithymia predicted SRBs, whereas body shame decreased SRBs. Results also revealed that alexithymia and body shame mediated the relationship between SO and SRBs. Specifically, self-objectification led to increased alexithymia and body shame, and alexithymia increased SRBs while body shame decreased SRBs. Last, results revealed that body shame fully mediated the relationship between both CSA and SO and sexual self-efficacy. Pathways were significant at the p < .05 level.

Cette thèse a pour ambition de résoudre le problème central de la philosophie morale et politique qu'est celui du consentement à la soumission par la construction d'un concept philosophique de soumission et par la résolution du problème dans le cadre de la soumission féminine. Nous montrons 1/ que l'étude de la soumission est nécessaire à une théorie du pouvoir, qu'elle implique de changer de perspective pour adopter le point de vue de ceux sur qui le pouvoir s'exerce et décrire leur expérience, mais qu'elle semble contradictoire avec la liberté naturelle des individus; 2/ que lorsque l'on restreint l'analyse du problème du consentement à la soumission à la façon dont il se pose dans le cadre des rapports homme-femme, il est impossible de tenir ensemble le concept de consentement et celui de soumission. Si l'on adopte une perspective libérale, le consentement de l'agent prévaut et dissout la soumission dans sa spécificité; si, au contraire, l'on insiste sur la dimension structurelle de la soumission féminine, le consentement n'apparaît que comme un manifestation de la fausse conscience des opprimées; 3/ qu'en surmontant la dichotomie entre individu et structure par les apports de la théorie économique et de la philosophie beauvoirienne, le consentement à la soumission n'apparaît plus comme une contradiction mais comme un choix rationnel des femmes qui s'explique par leur situation et l'ambiguïté de leur existence. La soumission est fondée sur un consentement mais qui diffère du consentement juridique du libéralisme et, ainsi, n'est pas contradictoire avec la réalité de l'oppression qui se joue dans ce consentement même. / This dissertation aims at resolving a central problem in moral and political philosophy, the problem of consenting to one' own submission, by building a philosophical concept of submission and resolving of the problem in the specific context of female submission. We argue that 1/ studying submission is crucial for a theory of power, that it implies a change of perspective in order to adopt the stand point of those on whom power is exerted and to describe their experience, but that such a study seems at odds with the natural freedom of individual; 2/ when one narrows the analysis to the problem of consent to submission in the context of male/female relations, it is impossible to hold together the concept of consent and the concept of submission. From a liberal perspective, the agent's consent prevails and dissolves submission in its specificity; conversely, when emphasizing the structural dimension of female submission, consent only appears as a demonstration of the false consciousness of the oppressed; 3/when one overcomes the agency/structure dichotomy through the methods and results of economic theory and Beauvoir's philosophy, consent to submission stops appearing as a contradiction, and is instead revealed as a rational choice of women, explained by their situation and the ambiguity of their existence. Submission is thus founded by a consent -a consent that is not the liberal legal consent and, as such, is not contradictory to the reality of the oppression at stake in this very consent.

Objektifiering är en av de vanligaste formerna av diskriminering mot kvinnor. Befintlig forskning inom ämnet är övervägande kvantitativ och har i huvudsak genomförts på vita kvinnor i en nordamerikansk kontext. Syftet med föreliggande studie var därför att undersöka svarta kvinnors upplevelser av objektifiering i Sverige. Sju semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes och analyserades genom tematisk analys. Resultatet utmynnade i tre teman: Objektifierad – hur, var, av vem?, Att vara ett objekt och Motståndskraft. Studiens resultat visade att deltagarnas erfarenheter har skett mot bakgrund av patriarkala samhälleliga strukturer i kombination med stereotypa föreställningar och fördomar om svarta kvinnor. Den vanligast förekommande formen av objektifiering var att få utseendet granskat och utvärderat genom blickar, kommentarer eller fysisk beröring utifrån fysiska attribut som är stereotypt kännetecknande för svarta kvinnor. Deltagarna beskrev att deras erfarenheter bland annat har resulterat i en ökad vaksamhet, kroppsupptagenhet samt påverkade och förändrade relationer. Slutligen nämndes strategier för hur deltagarna hanterade de påfrestningar som objektifiering innebar. Studien understryker vikten av ökad kunskap i samhället avseende vilka faktorer som möjliggör objektifiering av svarta kvinnor. / Objectification is one of the most common forms of discrimination towards women. Contemporary research in the subject is predominantly quantitative and has mostly been done on white women in a North American context. The aim of this study was therefore to examine black women’s experiences of objectification in Sweden. Seven semi-structured interviews were performed and analyzed through thematic analysis. The result ensued in three themes: Objectification – how, where, by whom?, To be an object and Resistance. The study’s result showed that the participants’ experiences have occurred as a consequence of patriarchal societal structures, combined with stereotypical conceptions and prejudice about black women. The most common form of objectification was having one’s appearance scrutinized and valuated through looks, comments or physical touches of those physical attributes which are stereotypical features of black women. Participants expressed that their experiences have, among other things, resulted in increased watchfulness, bodily consciousness and affected and changed relations. Lastly, the participants described strategies applied to handle the strain caused by objectification. The study emphasizes the importance of increased societal knowledge in regards of which factors enable the objectification of black women.

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Tidigare forskning visar att självobjektifiering kan ha negativa effekter på individens kroppsuppfattning och leda till bland annat lägre självkänsla, ätstörningar och depression. Enligt objektifieringsteorin innebär objektifiering att betrakta någon eller något som ett objekt när det inte är det och att bedöma och beskåda sig själv utifrån någon annans perspektiv. Självobjektifiering kopplas i huvudsak samman med kvinnor vilket kan bero på traditionella könsroller och att mindre forskning har gjorts på män inom samma fält. Studiens syfte var att undersöka eventuella samband mellan självobjektifiering och kroppsuppfattning samt om det skiljer sig mellan kvinnor och män. Med hjälp av välbeprövade instrument, ett standardiserat frågeformulär och kvantitativ design har vi utformat en tvärsnittsstudie som utförts på det svenska företaget Folkspel i Göteborg (N= 113). Studiens resultat visar att det finns ett samband mellan självobjektifiering och kroppsuppfattning vilket stämmer överens med tidigare forskning. Resultatet visar också att sambandet inte nödvändigtvis behöver vara i negativ art, framför allt när det kommer till män då en viss del av självobjektifiering kan ha en positiv effekt på individens kroppsuppfattning. / Previous research shows that self-objectification can have negative effects on the individual's body image and lead to for example lower self-esteem, eating disorders and depression. According to the objectification theory, objectification means considering someone or something as an object when it is not, and to judge and view oneself from someone else's perspective. Self-objectification is mainly associated with women which may be due to traditional gender roles and the fact that less research has been done on men in the same field. The purpose of the study was to investigate possible connections between self-objectification and body image and whether it differs between men and women. Using well-proven instruments, a standardized questionnaire and quantitative design, we designed a cross-sectional study that was carried out at the Swedish company Folkspel in Gothenburg (N= 113). The result of the study shows that there is a connection between self-objectification and body image which agrees with previous studies. The result also shows that the connection does not necessarily have to be, in a negative sense especially when it comes to men, as a certain amount of self-objectification can have positive effects on the individual's body image.

Au cours des dix dernières années, l'adoption de comportements, d'attitudes et de tenues vestimentaires ultra sexualisés chez les jeunes a retenu l'attention des journalistes, des parents et des psychologues. Une équipe de chercheurs de l'American Psychological Association (2007) souligne l'importance des médias et d'Internet dans l'émergence de "l'hypersexualisation" tandis que maintes études abordent des répercussions potentiellement dommageables de ce phénomène sur la santé physique et psychologique des hommes et des femmes. La présente étude a pour but de poursuivre la recherche en matière de couple et sexualité des jeunes adultes (18-29 ans). Elle vise à évaluer les liens entre l'hypersexualisation adulte, la communication sexuelle et le fonctionnement sexuel afin de vérifier si le degré d'hypersexualisation est associé à la satisfaction sexuelle et à la présence de dysfonctions sexuelles chez les jeunes adultes. De plus, elle vise à examiner si la communication sexuelle joue un rôle de médiateur entre ces variables. Un échantillon de 705 hommes et femmes francophones a été recruté en fonction des critères suivants : être âgés entre 18 et 29 ans, résider au Québec et être actuellement dans une relation avec un ou des partenaires. Les participants ont été appelés à remplir une batterie de questionnaires en ligne, incluant une échelle de désirabilité sociale, le Questionnaire d'hypersexualisation adulte, l'Index de satisfaction sexuelle de Hudson, le Questionnaire multidimensionnel de la sexualité et la version française du Arizona Sexual Experiences Scale, et ce, via le site sécurisé SurveyMonkey ® . Des analyses de régression ont révélé des liens négatifs entre la satisfaction sexuelle et les échelles objectification et apparence ainsi que des liens positifs avec les échelles discours sexualisé et sens à la sexualité . Certaines échelles d'hypersexualisation sont associées à une libido plus élevée et à une plus grande excitation sexuelle (performance et séduction) alors que d'autres sont associées à moins de troubles de fonctionnement sexuel (discours, sens à la sexualité). Des liens positifs sont également obtenus entre les échelles objectification, apparence et la présence de douleurs sexuelles. Le rôle médiateur (partiel et complet) de la communication sexuelle est aussi révélé dans les liens unissant certaines échelles d'hypersexualisation aux indices de fonctionnement sexuel. La discussion porte sur les implications cliniques de ces résultats et les pistes de recherche futures.

This study intends to gain understanding of how mothers in the two first years postpartum feel about and relate themselves to the ideal of thinness. The empirical material is based on new mothers’ perceptions and experiences. The data is collected through a qualitative method based on interviews.   The study is interpreted by a social constructive perspective and the theoretical framework has been objectification theory and Connell’s theory of gender. Some of the theoretical concepts we have used to understand the mothers’ experiences are “norms”, “normative femininity” and “social stigma”. We also have used the thematic concept “the social body”, which is an understanding of the body as a carrier of social meaning   The results of the study show that new mothers have a problematic relation to their own bodies. This problematic approach to the body arises from the constant presence of the ideal of thinness and comments from the surroundings, as the norms of interpersonal relationships are modified during pregnancy and the postpartum period. The bodies of the new mothers become objectified by the comments from the surroundings and their bodies are therefore under social control.   The ideal of thinness has a big impact on the new mothers’ body perception. We have therefore identified four strategies that the mothers use to manage the ideal: 1. With the help of clothes the new mothers precede the social pressure that the ideal of thinness generates by concealing their bodies that they experience does not comply with the ideal; 2. The new mothers adapt their bodies to the ideal by physical exercise; 3. The new mothers adapt their bodies to the ideal by diet; 4. The new mothers use cognitive strategies to feel more at ease with their postpartum bodies, by thinking kind thoughts about themselves and their own bodies.

The eating disorder literature has long suggested that sociocultural experiences specific to women influence development of bulimic pathology; however, models have differed on the type of experiences that are important and what other variables interact with these experiences to lead to eating pathology. Broader sociocultural theory and objectification theory represent two such differing models, and more recently Moradi hypothesized that integrating elements from both models would provide a better picture of eating disorder development. The present study, therefore, sought to compare these three different models of bulimic pathology development to determine which one provides the best explanation for bulimic outcomes. The sample consisted of 682 undergraduate women between the ages of 18 and 24, recruited from a large southwestern university. Data were collected on-line using a series of questionnaires to measure the constructs of interest and analyzed using structural equation modeling. All three models fit the data well and explained approximately 50% of bulimic outcomes; however, the model based on Moradi’s integrated model provided the most information about the relationships between constructs within the model. The development of bulimic symptomatology appears best explained by a model that focuses on the sociocultural experience of pressures about weight and body size, but also integrates aspects of objectification theory as well. Future research, however, is needed to determine if sexually objectifying experiences, if measured differently, affect women’s development of eating pathology along with pressures.

In 2008 it was reported that there are approximately 28,258 internet users viewing pornography every second, and that men look at pornography online more than any other subject matter (Eberstadt 2009). Pornography has become a primary tool of sex education for young men (Bowater 2011) with the average age of first exposure being age 11 (Stefan 2012). However, research on viewer understanding and interpretation of the images is scarce. What are boys learning about sexuality as they watch pornography? Do they use pornography as a ‘how-to’ manual expressing a desire to mimic the onscreen act or do they use pornography as a general stimulant expressing a generalized pleasure, interpreting the act in alternative ways? The pro-pornography stance stresses the agency of the viewer, meaning the viewer has the ability to access a broad array of content creating a poly-semiotic or figurative experience. The anti-pornography stance stresses the agency of the industry, meaning the industry pushes a dominant design creating a mono-semiotic or literal experience. The purpose of this study is to look at how viewers of online pornography interpret what they see. By analyzing viewer comments sampled from free pornographic tube sites, this study seeks to understand the extent of viewer agency; do men interpret pornographic images literally or figuratively?

This study examines how two lifestyle magazines produce gender through their covers, and how young men and women are affected by the covers in their thoughts on gender constructions. The starting point for the study is Erving Goffman's visual codes describing the portrayal of gender in advertising. By applying Roland Barthes method, semiotic image analysis the result show that the two lifestyle magazines create a relatively stereotypical image of male and female. In the analysis of the cover, for example, posing, clothing choices, color choices and more are taken up for review. How these covers affects young men and women was examined through the qualitative focus group method. The results indicate that both sexes are affected to some extent by these images, where women are more affected by comparison and that they try to adhere to a certain ideal.