La notion de théorie s'est séparée de la notion de logique à la fin des années 1920, lorsque Hilbert et Ackermann ont distingué les règles de déduction, indépendantes de l'ob jet du discours, des axiomes qui lui sont spécifiques. S'est alors posée la question de caractériser les théories, définies donc comme des ensembles d'axiomes, que l'on peut utiliser pour formaliser une partie du raisonnement mathématique. Un premier critère est la cohérence de cette théorie : le fait qu'on ne puisse pas démontrer toutes les propositions de cette théorie. Cependant il est progressivement apparu que la cohérence n'était pas une propriété suffisante. Le fait que les démonstrations constructives vérifient les propriétés de la dijonction ou du témoin, ou la complétude de certaines méthodes de démonstration automatique ne découlent pas de la seule cohérence d'une théorie. Mais toutes trois sont par contre conséquentes d'une même propriété : la normalisation des démonstrations. En 1930, le théorème de complétude de Gödel montra que le critére de cohérence pouvait être vu sous différents angles. En plus de la définition précédente interne à la théorie de la démonstration, on peut également définir de manière algébrique la cohérence d'une théorie comme le fait qu'elle possède un modèle. L'équivalence entre ces deux définitions constitue un outil fondamental, qui a permis notamment la démonstration de la cohérence de nombreuses théories : la théorie des ensembles avec la négation de l'axiome du choix par Fraenkel et Mostovski, la théorie des ensembles avec l'axiome du choix et l'hypothèse du continue par Gödel, la théorie des ensembles avec la négation de l'hypothèse du continu par Cohen, . . . A l'inverse, la normalisation des démonstrations semblait ne pouvoir se définir que de manière interne à la théorie de la démonstration. Certains critères inspirés de la théorie des modèles étaient certes parfois utilisés pour démontrer la propriété de normalisation des démonstrations de certaines théories, mais la nécéssité de ces critéres n'avait pas été établie. Nous proposons dans cette thèse un critère algébrique à la fois nécessaire et suffisant pour la normalisation des démonstrations. Nous montrons ainsi que la propriété de normalisation des démonstrations peut également se définir comme un critère algébrique, à l'instar de la propriété de cohérence. Nous avons pour cela défini une nouvelle notion d'algèbre de valeurs de vérités (TVA) appelée algèbres de vérité dépendant du langage (LDTVA). La notion de TVA permet d'exhiber l'algèbre de valeurs de vérité des candidats de réductibilité définis par Girard en 1970. L'existence d'un modèle à valeurs dans cette algèbre définit un critère algébrique suffisant pour la propriété de normalisation des démonstrations. Puis nous avons défini un raffinement de la notion de candidats de réductibilité comme une de ces LDTVAs et avons montré que l'existence d'un modèle à valeurs dans cette algèbre définit un critère algébrique toujours suffisant mais également nécessaire pour la propriété de normalisation des démonstrations. Ce critère est défini pour les cadres logiques de la déduction minimale et du λΠ-calcul modulo. Et nous exhibons finalement la puissance du λΠ-calcul modulo en montrant que tous les systèmes de types purs fonctionnels peuvent être simulés dans ce cadre logique.

Enda sedan den först introducerades på 1870-talet har telefonen spelat en viktigt roll i kommunikationen människor mellan. Utvecklingen inom telekombranschen har skett i ett rasande snabbt tempo under de senaste 30-40 år, och idag är det vanligare med en mobiltelefon än en fast telefon. En populär variant av mobiltelefonen är den så kallade smarta mobilen som bland annat gör det möjligt att nyttja mer avancerade program och tjänster än i en traditionell mobiltelefon. Sedan början av 2000-talet har röstsamtal över internet, så kallad VoIP, ökat allt mer. Fördelen med VoIP är främst att samtal mellan datorer i regel är helt kostnadsfria vilket gör dessa tjänster utmärkta för långdistanssamtal.   I och med att antalet smarta mobiler ökar samtidigt som marknaden för VoIP växer har mobiloperatörerna börjat se detta som ett större hot mot sina intäkter. Idag har i princip alla mobiloperatörer i Sverige ett förbud mot VoIP i sina så kallade surfabonnemang. Detta innebär att slutanvändarna hindras att nyttja valfria tjänster samtidigt som tjänsteutvecklare får det svårt att ta sig in på marknaden.   I slutet av 2009 antog Europaparlamentet två så kallade ändringsdirektiv som innebär att regelverket som berör elektroniska kommunikationer inom EU moderniseras. Samtliga medlemsstater hade därefter 18 månader på sig att implementera de nya bestämmelserna i sina respektive lagstiftningar. I Sverige trädde ett flertal bestämmelser i kraft den 1 juli 2011, bland dessa fanns 5 kap 6 d § LEK som introducerar det nya begreppet lägsta tjänstekvalitet.   Syftet med denna uppsats är att utifrån nätneutralitetsbegreppet utreda huruvida den nya bestämmelsen, 5 kap 6 d § LEK, kommer att leda till att förbudet mot VoIP i mobiloperatörernas nät hävs.   Utifrån det material som funnits tillgängligt har följande slutsats kunnat göras. Det går idag inte till fullo att veta huruvida bestämmelsen kommer att häva VoIP-förbudet, detta då den varken använts av PTS eller prövats i ett överklagande av berörd part.

L'activité de PrfA, régulateur transcriptionnel de nombreux gènes de virulence de Listeria monocytogenes, dont hly, est inhibée par des sucres rapidement métabolisés comme le glucose et le fructose. Cette inhibition ne suit pas le mécanisme général de répression catabolique des firmicutes, car l'inactivation de ccpA (catabolite control protein A) ne lève pas la répression de l'expression des gènes de virulence exercée par le glucose ou le fructose. Dans le but de tester si le co-répresseur P-Ser-HPr serait impliqué dans la régulation de l'activité de PrfA, nous avons utilisé la souche BUG1199 de B. subtilis, qui contient intégrés à son génome, prfA sous contrôle du promoteur pspac qui est inductible à l'IPTG, et la fusion hly-lacZ. La formation de la P-Ser-HPr requiert l'intervention d'une enzyme bifonctionnelle l'HPr kinase/phosphorylase (HPrK/P), qui en fonction de la concentration de certains métabolites, soit phosphoryle HPr sur sa Ser-46, soit déphosphoryle la P-Ser-HPr. L'allèle hprKV267F codant pour une HPrK/P qui a conservé une activité kinase normale mais ne possédant quasiment plus d'activité phosphorylase, favorise l'accumulation de la P-Ser-HPr dans la cellule. L'introduction de la mutation hprKV267F dans BUG1199 inhibe fortement l'activité de PrfA. La substitution dans HPr de la Ser-46 par une alanine empêche la formation de la P-Ser-HPr et restaure l'activité de PrfA, alors que l'inactivation de CcpA n'a aucun effet. Cependant l'interruption de ccpA dans BUG1199 à hprK sauvage, inhibe l'activité de PrfA. Cette répression de l'activité de PrfA dans le mutant ∆ccpA est probablement due aussi à l'accumulation de P-Ser-HPr dans la cellule, car elle est levée lorsque la Ser-46 dans HPr est remplacée par une alanine. Outre sa phosphorylation sur la Ser-46, HPr est également phosphorylée sur son His-15 par l'enzyme I (EI) via la cascade de phosphorylation PEP-dépendante du PTS (Phosphoenolpyruvate carbohydrate phosphoTransferase System). Cependant la P-Ser-HPr est un mauvais substrat pour l'EI, ce qui favorise probablement l'inhibition de PrfA. En effet, l'interruption des gènes codant pour HPr et/ou EI, inhibe également l'activité de PrfA. Ainsi pour être active, PrfA a besoin d'un PTS fonctionnel.

Nano-scale machining, or Nanomachining is a hybrid process in which the total thermal energy necessary to remove atoms from a work-piece surface is applied from external sources. In the current study, the total thermal energy necessary to remove atoms from a work-piece surface is applied from two sources: (1) localized energy from a laser beam focused to a micron-scale spot to preheat the work-piece, and (2) a high-precision electron-beam emitted from the tips of carbon nano-tubes to remove material via evaporation/sublimation. Macro-to-nano scale heat transfer models are discussed for understanding their capability to capture and its application to predict the transient heat transfer mechanism required for nano-machining. In this case, thermal transport mechanism during nano-scale machining involves both phonons (lattice vibrations) and electrons; it is modeled using a parabolic two-step (PTS) model, which accounts for the time lag between these energy carriers. A numerical algorithm is developed for the solution of the PTS model based on explicit and implicit finite-difference methods. Since numerical solution for simulation of nanomachining involves high computational cost in terms of wall clock time consumed, performance comparison over a wide range of numerical techniques has been done to devise an efficient numerical solution procedure. Gauss-Seidel (GS), successive over relaxation (SOR), conjugate gradient (CG), d -form Douglas-Gunn time splitting, and other methods have been used to compare the computational cost involved in these methods. Use of the Douglas-Gunn time splitting in the solution of 3D time-dependent heat transport equations appears to be optimal especially as problem size (number of spatial grid points and/or required number of time steps) becomes large. Parallel computing is implemented to further reduce the wall clock time required for the complete simulation of nanomachining process. Domain decomposition with inter-processor communication using Message Passing Interface (MPI) libraries is adapted for parallel computing. Performance tuning has been implemented for efficient parallelization by overlapping communication with computation. Numerical solution for laser source and electron-beam source with different Gaussian distribution are presented. Performance of the parallel code is tested on four distinct computer cluster architecture. Results obtained for laser source agree well with available experimental data in the literature. The results for electron-beam source are self-consistent; nevertheless, they need to be validated experimentally.

No description available.

It is generally held that economic sanctions have an adverse effect on human rights in sanctioned countries, but what about the non-sanctioned countries? Previous research has found that human rights sanctions appear to have a deterring effect on non-sanctioned countries in Latin America which, in turn, led to human rights improvements. The assumption from these findings suggests that countries improve their human rights in fear of being sanctioned themselves. Utilising a difference-in-differences method with data from CIRI and PTS for the time period 1977-1996, the present quasi-experimental study attempts to test these findings on Africa and Asia by posing the hypothesis that economic sanctions improve the level of human rights protection in the non-sanctioned countries of the same geographical region. The results show that, while there appears to be a positive effect on some measures of human rights in non-sanctioned countries, these effects are weak. Moreover, the results also show that the improvements correspond with the number of years following a sanction, where 1 year displays the weakest human rights improvements, whilst 10 years displays the strongest. The conclusion is that there, in some cases, appears to be a modest effect which needs to be examined further, but that sanctions, nevertheless, do not improve human rights in neighbouring countries in a meaningful way.

<p>In the best of worlds, all marketing is relevant.</p><p>This study brings light to and creates understanding for how to capture the opportunities for target marketing, given by resent technical development and improvement.</p><p>Customers often perceive marketing on the internet as annoying, embarrassing, repetitive and sometimes even noisy. Companies have problems to focus their marketing efforts towards the areas which give most value for the marketing investments. The conflict between companies pushing the marketing messages to their customers, who are trying to avoid them, a growing mistrust is feed.</p><p>Well established businesses are challenged by new companies cutting in between the content providers and their customers. A new business model using the <em>Long Tail</em> phenomena is shaking the old media houses’ business position.</p><p>Smartphones and netbooks are merging into mobile devices, which release a number of opportunities for target marketing. This study states that mobile devices are personalized and as a consequence, open for the possibility of target marketing towards individuals. However, there are identified obstacles to overcome. One challenge lies in the balance between marketing benefits and preventing violation of the customers’ personal integrity.</p><p>From literature and case studies, light is brought to the state of practice of rules and regulations, old media houses <em>Schibsted</em> and <em>Aftonbladet</em>, search engine provider as <em>Google</em> and a marketing agency, <em>Mobiento Mobile Marketing</em>. </p><p>Trends and best practices stick out as more important in order for a company to become a successful target marketing actor. A “<em>target marketing house concept</em>” points out four significant areas for companies to benefit from the power of target marketing in mobile devices.</p><p>Trough out of this study, protection of the personal integrity and personal data has been pointed out as a key factor for a mutual and trustful customer relationship. This is considered to be as a precondition, both for behaviour segmentation and for a joint rewarding customer dialogue.</p>

In the best of worlds, all marketing is relevant. This study brings light to and creates understanding for how to capture the opportunities for target marketing, given by resent technical development and improvement. Customers often perceive marketing on the internet as annoying, embarrassing, repetitive and sometimes even noisy. Companies have problems to focus their marketing efforts towards the areas which give most value for the marketing investments. The conflict between companies pushing the marketing messages to their customers, who are trying to avoid them, a growing mistrust is feed. Well established businesses are challenged by new companies cutting in between the content providers and their customers. A new business model using the Long Tail phenomena is shaking the old media houses’ business position. Smartphones and netbooks are merging into mobile devices, which release a number of opportunities for target marketing. This study states that mobile devices are personalized and as a consequence, open for the possibility of target marketing towards individuals. However, there are identified obstacles to overcome. One challenge lies in the balance between marketing benefits and preventing violation of the customers’ personal integrity. From literature and case studies, light is brought to the state of practice of rules and regulations, old media houses Schibsted and Aftonbladet, search engine provider as Google and a marketing agency, Mobiento Mobile Marketing.  Trends and best practices stick out as more important in order for a company to become a successful target marketing actor. A “target marketing house concept” points out four significant areas for companies to benefit from the power of target marketing in mobile devices. Trough out of this study, protection of the personal integrity and personal data has been pointed out as a key factor for a mutual and trustful customer relationship. This is considered to be as a precondition, both for behaviour segmentation and for a joint rewarding customer dialogue.

No description available.

Grasslands are one of the most important ecosystems on Earth, covering approximately one-third of the Earth’s surface. Grassland biodiversity is important as many services provided by such ecosystems are crucial for the human economy and well-being. Given the importance of grasslands ecosystems, in recent years research has been carried out on the potential to monitor them with novel remote sensing techniques. Improved detectors technology and novel sensors providing fine-scale hyperspectral imagery have been enabling new methods to monitor plant traits (PTs) and biodiversity. The aims of the work were to study different approaches to monitor key grassland PTs such as Leaf Area Index (LAI) and biodiversity-related traits. The thesis consists of 3 parts: 1) Evaluating the performance of remote sensing methods to estimate LAI in grassland ecosystems, 2) Estimating plant biodiversity by using the optical diversity approach in grassland ecosystems, and 3) Investigating the relationship between PTs variability with alpha and beta diversity for the applicability of the optical diversity approach in a subalpine grassland of the Italian Alps To evaluate the performance of remote sensing methods to estimate LAI, temporal and spatial observations of hyperspectral reflectance and LAI were analyzed at a grassland site in Monte Bondone, Italy (IT-MBo). In 2018, ground temporal observations of hyperspectral reflectance and LAI were carried out at a grassland site in Neustift, Austria (AT-NEU). To estimate biodiversity, in 2018 and 2019 a floristics survey was conducted to determine species composition and hyperspectral data were acquired at two grassland sites: IT-MBo and University of Padova’s Experimental Farm, Legnaro, Padua, Italy (IT-PD) respectively. Furthermore, in 2018, biochemistry analysis of the biomass samples collected from the grassland site IT-MBo was carried out to determine the foliar biochemical PTs variability. The results of the thesis demonstrated that the grassland spectral response across different spectral regions (Visible: VIS, red-edge: RE, Near-infrared: NIR) showed to be both site-specific and scale-dependent. In the first part of the thesis, the performance of spectral vegetation indices (SVIs) based on visible, red-edge (RE), and NIR bands alongside SVIs solely based or NIR-shoulder bands (wavelengths 750 - 900 nm) was evaluated. A strong correlation (R2 &gt; 0.8) was observed between grassland LAI and both RE and NIR-shoulder SVIs on a temporal basis, but not on a spatial basis. Using the PROSAIL Radiative Transfer Model (RTM), it was demonstrated that grassland structural heterogeneity strongly affects the ability to retrieve LAI, with high uncertainties due to structural and biochemical PTs co-variation. In the second part, the applicability of the spectral variability hypothesis (SVH) was questioned and highlighted the challenges to use high-resolution hyperspectral images to estimate biodiversity in complex grassland ecosystems. It was reported that the relationship between biodiversity (Shannon, Richness, Simpson, and Evenness) and optical diversity metrics (Coefficient of variation (CV) and Standard deviation (SD)) is not consistent across plant communities. The results of the second part suggested that biodiversity in terms of species richness could be estimated by optical diversity metrics with an R2 = 0.4 at the IT-PD site where the grassland plots were artificially established and are showing a lower structure and complexity from the natural grassland plant communities. On the other hand, in the natural ecosystems at IT-MBo, it was more difficult to estimate biodiversity indices, probably due to structural and biochemical PTs co-variation. The effects of canopy non-vegetative elements (flowers and dead material), shadow pixels, and overexposed pixels on the relationship between optical diversity metrics and biodiversity indices were highlighted. In the third part, we examined the relationship between PTs variability (at both local and community scales, measured by standard deviation and by the Euclidean distances of the biochemical and biophysical PTs respectively) and taxonomic diversity (both α-diversity and β-diversity, measured by Shannon’s index and by Jaccard dissimilarity index of the species, families, and functional groups percent cover respectively) in Monte Bondone, Trentino province, Italy. The results of the study showed that the PTs variability metrics at alpha scale were not correlated with α-diversity. However, the results at the community scale (β-diversity) showed that some of the investigated biochemical and biophysical PTs variations metrics were associated with β-diversity. The SVH approach was also tested to estimate β-diversity and we found that spectral diversity calculated by spectral angular mapper (SAM) showed to be a better proxy of biodiversity in the same ecosystem where the spectral diversity failed to estimate alpha diversity, this leading to the conclusion that the link between functional and species diversity may be an indicator of the applicability of optical sampling methods to estimate biodiversity. The findings of the thesis highlighted that grassland structural heterogeneity strongly affects the ability to retrieve both LAI and biodiversity, with high uncertainties due to structural and biochemical PTs co-variation at complex grassland ecosystems. In this context, the uncertainties of satellite-based products (e.g., LAI) in monitoring grassland canopies characterized by either spatially or temporally varying structure need to be carefully taken into account. The results of the study highlighted that the poor performance of optical diversity proxies in estimating biodiversity in structurally heterogeneous grasslands might be due to the complex relationships between functional diversity and biodiversity, rather than the impossibility to detect functional diversity with spectral proxies.