FN påbörjade sina första biståndsprojekt för drygt 60 år sedan och i Sverige började man arbeta med organiserat bistånd under 60-talet. Det är alltså under relativt lång tid som världens rikare länder har försökt hjälpa de mindre rika länderna att utvecklas. Arbetet kring bistånd är dock mycket komplext och en hel del problem har uppstått under den här perioden. Den här uppsatsen syftar till att belysa några av de risker som kan uppstå i samband med biståndsarbetet. Att risker uppstår är inte speciellt konstigt då två (eller flera) länder med ofta mycket olika politiska system ska samarbeta, eftersom värdegrunderna kan skilja sig avsevärt. Resultatet har visat att dessa risker är svåra att hantera, vilket kan bero på olika faktorer som projektens omfattande storlek samt att givare och mottagare av bistånd inte alltid har samma uppfattning om hur biståndet bör användas. Resultatet har också visat att trots att man under en så pass lång period har arbetat aktivt med att utveckla och förbättra biståndsarbetet inte lyckats komma tillrätta med risker och problem som exempelvis korruption, ett problem som snarare tycks växa. Slutligen tyder resultatet också på att bistånd i vissa fall riskerar att göra mer skada än nytta, vilket visar på att arbetet kring bistånd måste förbättras avsevärt för att biståndet verkligen ska få de positiva följder som biståndsgivarna säger sig sträva efter.

This work is a socio-historical study of the roots of Sahrawi national identity. The Sahrawi are a community of people who live in the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony. Most of its territory has been occupied since 1975 by Morocco, which denies the existence of a distinctive population inhabiting the Western Sahara. In contrast, the POLISARIO Front, vanguard of the Sahrawi nationalist movement, argues that the Western Sahara belongs to the Sahrawi and seeks its full independence. It bases its claims on the notion of a distinctive history, language, and culture for the Sahrawi, separate from that of Moroccans. The central question of this study asks, “What are the origins of Sahrawi national identity?” This study provides a detailed account of Sahrawi identity formation and how it has developed in intensity and scope. It renders a clear understanding of the Sahrawi phenomenon, useful to the international community in its deliberations on the validity of their nationalism. This study examines the foundation of Sahrawi identity through three different theoretical lenses, namely, primordialism, instrumentalism, and constructivism. The study analyzes arguments derived from each of these theoretical approaches, acknowledging the diversity of arguments about the sources of national identity. This study also demonstrates how a national identity can develop over a long period of time as a succession of layers. This study locates the final moment of Sahrawi identity formation in the twentieth century, but adds that this conclusion utilizes essential markers of differentiation that persist over time—the building blocks of any national identity.

M.Comm. / Belastinginsentiewe is daarop gemik om handel met ander lande te bevorder deur buitelandse beleggers aan te moedig om hul geld in die betrokke land te investeer. Dit dien terselfdertyd as aansporing om in spesifieke besighede te bele of spesifieke bedrywe te beoefen. Die studie het ten doel om belastinginsentiewe in Suid-Afrika te ontleed en dit te vergelyk met die van ander lande. Waar moontlik word aanbevelings gemaak oor hoe en waar daar in Suid-Afrika beter van belastinginsentiewe gebruik gemaak kan word. Daar word spesifieke aandag aan die toepassing van die belastinginsentiewe in die verskillende lande gegee.

The objective of this study is to assess the uncultured bacterial diversity in the snowpack of the Mont Blanc (MtBl) glacier containing Saharan dust deposited during four dust events during the period 2006 – 2009 by means of molecular phylogenetics. The final goal is to discover the bacteria that could be involved in the establishment of snow microbiota. Bacterial diversity was evaluated using rybotyping and subsequent sequencing of partial (V3-V5) and full-length 16S rRNA genes. For comparison purpose we also studied following samples: “clean” MtBl snow containing no Saharan dust; Saharan sand collected in Tunisia; Saharan dust collected in Grenoble (200 m a.s.l.) and recovered later on MtBl (4250 m a.s.l.). In order to verify possible microbial activity in situ, both rDNA and rRNA approaches were implemented for the “clean” snow sample. To evaluate the survival/colonization abilities of bacterial phylotypes recovered in snow samples with Saharan dust, we analyzed their closest strain physiology as well as sources of environmental clones using a threshold of ≥98% sequence similarity. For the result interpretation, we also used data on dust elemental composition and dust particles size distribution. As a result 8 clone libraries (including rRNA-based one) were constructed using V3-V5 16S rRNA gene sequences for 5 snow samples (4 with Saharan dust and one “clean”), sample of Saharan dust collected in Grenoble and Saharan sand sample. Furthermore, 4 clone libraries were generated using full-length 16S rRNA gene amplicons obtained from 4 of the above snow samples (three with Saharan dust and one ‘clean'). Species content and dominant phylotypes and their assigning to major divisions varied significantly in alpine snow on a Mont Blanc glacier associated with four depositions of Saharan dust over a 3-year. Dominant phylotypes revealed are belonged to Actinobacteria, Proteobactreia, Firmicutes, Deinococcus-Thermus, Bacteroidetes and Cyanobacteria. Such variability was detected by both partial and full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing and seems to be caused more by conditions of dust transport than bacterial load from the original dust source. Also the preservation period of dust in snowpack could affect the species composition. Thirteen icy phylotypes as candidates into snow microbiota establishing were recognized in snow containing Saharan dust and only two in “clean” snow sample. Of them, both dominant and minor phylotypes of Cyanobacteria, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria и Firmicutes were revealed. Data on the closest strain physiology of recognized icy phylotypes suggests that representatives of genera Massilia (Betaproteobacteria), Tumebacillus (Firmicutes), Phormidium and Stigonema (both Cyanobacteria) are most relevant findings in terms of propagation in snow. By analyzing 16S rRNA from the “clean” snow containing no Saharan dust and comparing the data with those obtained for 16S rDNA library, it has been shown that Stigonema-like cyanobacterium identified could be propagating in snow at subzero temperature. Among all identified phylotypes, 10% were categorized as HA-phylotypes based on their con-specificity (≥98% similarity) with normal (non-pathogenic) human microbiome representatives. Furthermore, 11% out of all phylotypes showed less than 90% similarity with known taxa, thus, presenting novel taxa. Sequencing of both partial (V3-V5) and full-length 16S rRNA genes permitted to describe microbial diversity more fully and get more detailed picture. / The objective of this study is to assess the uncultured bacterial diversity in the snowpack of the Mont Blanc (MtBl) glacier containing Saharan dust deposited during four dust events during the period 2006 – 2009 by means of molecular phylogenetics. The final goal is to discover the bacteria that could be involved in the establishment of snow microbiota. Bacterial diversity was evaluated using rybotyping and subsequent sequencing of partial (V3-V5) and full-length 16S rRNA genes. For comparison purpose we also studied following samples: “clean” MtBl snow containing no Saharan dust; Saharan sand collected in Tunisia; Saharan dust collected in Grenoble (200 m a.s.l.) and recovered later on MtBl (4250 m a.s.l.). In order to verify possible microbial activity in situ, both rDNA and rRNA approaches were implemented for the “clean” snow sample. To evaluate the survival/colonization abilities of bacterial phylotypes recovered in snow samples with Saharan dust, we analyzed their closest strain physiology as well as sources of environmental clones using a threshold of ≥98% sequence similarity. For the result interpretation, we also used data on dust elemental composition and dust particles size distribution. As a result 8 clone libraries (including rRNA-based one) were constructed using V3-V5 16S rRNA gene sequences for 5 snow samples (4 with Saharan dust and one “clean”), sample of Saharan dust collected in Grenoble and Saharan sand sample. Furthermore, 4 clone libraries were generated using full-length 16S rRNA gene amplicons obtained from 4 of the above snow samples (three with Saharan dust and one ‘clean'). Species content and dominant phylotypes and their assigning to major divisions varied significantly in alpine snow on a Mont Blanc glacier associated with four depositions of Saharan dust over a 3-year. Dominant phylotypes revealed are belonged to Actinobacteria, Proteobactreia, Firmicutes, Deinococcus-Thermus, Bacteroidetes and Cyanobacteria. Such variability was detected by both partial and full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing and seems to be caused more by conditions of dust transport than bacterial load from the original dust source. Also the preservation period of dust in snowpack could affect the species composition. Thirteen icy phylotypes as candidates into snow microbiota establishing were recognized in snow containing Saharan dust and only two in “clean” snow sample. Of them, both dominant and minor phylotypes of Cyanobacteria, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria и Firmicutes were revealed. Data on the closest strain physiology of recognized icy phylotypes suggests that representatives of genera Massilia (Betaproteobacteria), Tumebacillus (Firmicutes), Phormidium and Stigonema (both Cyanobacteria) are most relevant findings in terms of propagation in snow. By analyzing 16S rRNA from the “clean” snow containing no Saharan dust and comparing the data with those obtained for 16S rDNA library, it has been shown that Stigonema-like cyanobacterium identified could be propagating in snow at subzero temperature. Among all identified phylotypes, 10% were categorized as HA-phylotypes based on their con-specificity (≥98% similarity) with normal (non-pathogenic) human microbiome representatives. Furthermore, 11% out of all phylotypes showed less than 90% similarity with known taxa, thus, presenting novel taxa. Sequencing of both partial (V3-V5) and full-length 16S rRNA genes permitted to describe

No description available.

Abstract  Western Sahara’s history is marked by Spanish colonization until 1976 followed by Moroccan invasion and nearly 50 years of occupation. The right to self-determination, applicable to territories under colonial or occupational rule, remains unrealized in Western Sahara. Despite Morocco’s occupation, the EU maintains a robust relationship to its neighbor, notably through the Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement. This study scrutinizes the EU-Moroccan fisheries trade, focusing on the EU-Morocco Fisheries Partnership Agreement, and EU-Morocco Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Agreement. Despite the Court of Justice of the EU consistently nullifying or declaring these agreements inapplicable to Western Sahara due to public international law violations, the EU persists in trade negotiations with neighboring Morocco.  Reflecting on the dilemma, the purpose of this thesis is to examine the responsibility of the EU in relation to Western Sahara’s right to external self-determination, by scrutinizing the EU-Morocco fisheries trade with specific focus on the aforementioned agreements. Upon scrutinizing the EU’s stance on its neighboring conflict, five key conclusions are drawn. Firstly, that Western Sahara holds the right to self-determination on dual grounds – as a non-self-governing territory awaiting decolonization and due to unlawful annexation by Morocco. The right includes an economic and a political aspect. However, the political right to self-determination through a referendum remains unrealized. Secondly, the EU, bound by international law, has obligations to respect Western Sahara’s right to self-determination and to not recognize serious breaches of this right as lawful. Thirdly, the EU falls short in respecting Western Sahara's economic right to self-determination, violating both respect and non-recognition obligations through entering into the aforementioned fisheries agreements with Morocco. Fourthly, these violations invoke international organization responsibility. Lastly, while the agreements do not impact the theoretical applicability of the right to self- determination, they are exploitative and hinder the realization of Western Sahara's permanent sovereignty over natural wealth and resources. Even with amendments of the fisheries agreements to adhere to international law, the likelihood of realizing the right remains minimal, partially due to criticisms towards the self-determination regulation.

This thesis seeks to investigate the shifting role of the Republic of Tunisia in the North African region of Maghreb, where Tunisia has maintained its neutrality in the dispute of Western Sahara. Lately, however, Tunisia’s foreign policy manoeuvres have demonstrated a shift from its neutrality to post-neutrality. This thesis utilises the theoretical frameworks of constructivism and role theory to aid understanding how this shifting role of Tunisia is perceived in the international system. The study takes the form of a positivist case study where we utilise a process tracing technique in order to determine the sufficient explanation to Tunisia’s shift from neutrality to post-neutrality. We find that it is the causal processes of (1) Morocco establishing bilateral relations with Israel, (2) Tunisia’s preference to improve its ties with Algeria, and (3) President Saied’s meeting with the President of the SADR that provide an explanatory account for the shift in Tunisia’s formerly neutral stance in the dispute of Western Sahara.

No description available.

Ecotourism is gaining traction as a veritable approach to biodiversity conservation and livelihood sustenance in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).Thesuccessof this approachrests inpart, on the governance architecture of most states in SSA.However, empirical evidence on this subject is fragmented.This shades possibilities to frame conceptual andmethodological questions to advance ecotourism governance literature. This study undertakes a review of the literature on ecotourismgovernance in SSA, using thePROFORgovernance assessment framework as analytical lens. Content analysis, descriptive and inferential statistical methodswere employed to analyse 54 published empirical articles on ecotourismgovernance. The results indicated that studies conducted in Southern Africa (38%) and EastAfrica (30%) account for close to70%of the literature on ecotourism governance in SSA. Participation was the most studied ecotourism governance principle (96%),whileefficiency was the least (15%).Kruskal-Wallis test statistic showed no significant variation in the study of ecotourismgovernance principles in the different sub regions of SSA.Methodologically, most of the studies have either employed qualitative (50%) or quantitative (33%) approaches,with few studies employing mixedmethods (17%). Future studies need to prioritize mixed-method approaches to study principles such as efficiency and equity in the analysis of ecotourism governance. Equallymore empirical research studies should be undertaken in theWest and CentralAfrica sub-regions inorder to paint a better picture of the state of ecotourism governance across sub-Saharan Africa in general.

Cette thèse, sur la traite des esclaves noirs en Libye, dans les temps modernes, en particulier aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles, a nécessité une recherche à partir de questions telles que : quelles sont les origines et les catégories des esclaves noirs qui arrivèrent en Libye ? Les divers prix pratiqués ? Les stations commerçantes les plus importantes du Sahara ? Les routes caravanières empruntées pour le transport des esclaves vers l’Afrique du Nord et plus particulièrement la Libye ? La thèse porte sur les principaux marchés libyens, les méthodes d’achat et de vente, les prix des esclaves, les impôts, les douanes. La Libye a servi, en premier lieu, de plaque tournante pour l’exportation des esclaves vers d’autres destinations et notre étude s’est attachée à ses ports d’où partaient les esclaves en direction de l’Egypte, de l’Empire ottoman, du Levant et des pays du Maghreb. La thèse met aussi l’accent sur la vie sociale des esclaves, leurs rituels religieux, leurs traditions et coutumes, leur habitat, leurs relations avec leurs maîtres, leur intégration dans la communauté libyenne et musulmane jusqu’à en faire partie, le point de vue de la société libyenne sur ce phénomène de l’esclavage. La dernière partie de la thèse aborde la diminution du phénomène de l’esclavage en Libye, puis l’interdiction et l’abolition du commerce à partir de la pression internationale exercée sur l’Empire ottoman. Une évaluation est faite sur la qualité des mesures gouvernementales à cet égard, à travers un récit historique des évènements jusqu’à la fin du commerce à partir de l’occupation italienne, en 1911. / This thesis is about the black slaves’ trade in Libya in the modern era especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It illustrates a range of research issues such as, the sources of black slaves which came to Libya, its types and prices, the important commercial stations in the desert, the routes of the caravans which carried the slaves to North Africa and to Libya in particular. The research study comes across the most important markets on the Libyan soil, the methods of purchasing and buying, the slaves’ prices, the taxes and the customs. Hence, Libya was the area of re-exporting the slaves in the first place, the theses will mention the important exporting harbours and the important destinations such as Egypt, the Ottoman State (Turkey), and the Levant and the Maghreb countries. The thesis extends its scope to cover the social life of the slaves, their religious rituals, their customs and traditions, their houses, their relationships with their masters, the perception of the Libyan society to the slave phenomenon until they become an important component of the Libyan society and the Islamic societies in general. The last part of the thesis deals with the history of abolition of the slave trade and the disappearance of the slave phenomenon totally in Libya. This will be done by following the sequence of events starting with the international pressure on the Ottoman Empire for the abolition of slavery, the assessment of the seriousness of the governmental measures (procedures) and recalling the historical events until the end of the slave trade by the Italian occupation to Libya in 1911.