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[pt] A filosofia crítica de Kant refuta o dogmatismo e o ceticismo tomados exclusivamente, mediante o critério do autoconhecimento da razão. Entretanto, o dogmatismo não pode ser simplesmente superado. A conversão da postura dogmática para a crítica não exclui o que há de necessário no procedimento dogmático, tanto para a razão quanto para a filosofia. O mesmo vale para o ceticismo. A hipótese que serve de guia para essa dissertação é a de que como o procedimento dogmático e o método cético são necessários para o conhecimento, eles não podem ser superados, mas devem ganhar uma nova versão crítica. Podese afirmar que a coexistência em certa medida de ceticismo e dogmatismo em um único sistema filosófico caracteriza o pensamento moderno. Essa síntese, desse modo, pode ser considerada uma marca da modernidade e, para Kant, contrapor o método cético ao procedimento dogmático é um modo de manter a saúde da razão e o vigor do pensamento, sendo Kant o primeiro pensador moderno a sustentar e a elaborar essa síntese como uma tarefa permanente para a filosofia. / [en] Kant´s critical philosophy refutes dogmatism and also scepticism taken exclusively, through the criteria of the self-knowledge of reason. However, dogmatism cannot be simply surpassed. The conversion from the dogmatic posture to the critical does not exclude what is necessary in the dogmatic procedure, for reason as well as for philosophy. The same goes for scepticism. The hypothesis guiding this work is that the dogmatic procedure and the sceptical method are both necessary for knowledge; they cannot be surmounted, but must instead receive a critical version. It is right to say that the synthesis in some measure of scepticism and dogmatism in a single philosophical system characterizes modern thought. This synthesis, therefore, can be considered as a mark of modernity, and, for Kant, to oppose the sceptical method with the dogmatic procedure is a means of keeping reason healthy, and thought, vigorous, being Kant the first thinker in modernity to hold and elaborate this synthesis as a permanent task for philosophy.

Ce mémoire consiste en une explication de la critique biblique de Spinoza contenue dans la Traité théologico-politique. Cette critique répond à un problème précis : la subversion de la religion en superstition. Cette critique, nous l’expliquons en quatre parties. La première partie consiste en une mise en situation problématique. Elle montre que le problème biblique, qui appelle une critique, est la subversion de la religion. On y montre aussi l’origine de la superstition et la manière dont elle subvertit la religion. La seconde partie consiste en une mise en contexte historique, où l’on montre la pertinence historique d’une telle critique. Nous voyons en effet que la critique biblique de Spinoza s’inscrit dans une période de controverses théologiques importante. La troisième partie expose la méthode d’interprétation des Écritures de Spinoza (méthode historico-critique) et cherche à éclaircir la notion de lumière naturelle, notion fondamentale de la dite méthode. Enfin, dans la quatrième partie, nous exposons la critique spinoziste des autres méthodes interprétatives, jugées erronées par ce dernier, soient les méthodes surnaturelle, sceptique et dogmatique. Nous le verrons, la critique biblique, qui se rapporte à une question très précise, a une finalité plus générale. En effet, la critique biblique est inséparable du but que se donne Spinoza dans le Traité théologico-politique, soit défendre la liberté de penser et de dire ce que l’on pense. En fait, la critique biblique est un moyen pour réaliser ce but. / This thesis consists in an explanation of the biblical criticism that we find in Spinoza’s Theologico-Political Treatise. This criticism addresses a specific problem: the subversion of religion in superstition. We explain this criticism in four parts. The first part explain the situation in which Spinoza affirms the necessity of a biblical criticism. This section shows that the actual critical problem is the subversion of religion. We will also explain in this part, the origin of superstition and how it may subvert religion. The second part is historical. It shows the historical context which is relevant for the biblical criticism. We see in fact that Spinoza's criticism is developed in a period of significant theological controversies. The third part describes the interpretative method of the Scripture (the historico-critical method). Finally, in the fourth section, we present Spinoza's criticism of other interpretative methods. These methods (supernatural, skeptical and dogmatic) are considered false by Spinoza. We will see that biblical criticism has a more general purpose. Indeed, biblical criticism is inseparable from the main goal of the Theologico-Political Treatise: the freedom of thought. In fact, biblical criticism is a way to achieve this goal.

The thesis aims at examining Descartes's so called cogito from a wider perspective, especially as regards to the role in the development of Meditationes de prima philosophia (1641) and in the context of other relevant texts. Being an attempt to give a broad account of Descartes's "first cognition" the study deals not only with the cogito itself, e.g. with its logical structure, but also with other key Cartesian doctrines, so that we can understand the cogito as an integral part of Descartes's philosophy. The thesis inquires for this reason into the question of meditator's identity, the methodological skepticism, the question whether logical principles are called into question in the First meditation, the problem of the Cartesian circle, the distinction between implicit and explicit knowledge, the doctrine of innate ideas and finally, the question how to explain, according to Descartes, the awareness of our thoughts. Sometimes the considerations become rather systematic and go beyond a mere exegesis of Descartes's philosophy, especially when they concern the problem with the presence of ego in cogito and the explanation of our self-consciousness. There are three competing approaches to the second issue mentioned that are introduced and assessed in the last chapter. I have chosen this way of...

Nous examinons d’abord les aspects de la souveraineté politique sur la scène shakespearienne. À la lumière des analyses consacrées par Walter Benjamin au drame baroque, en 1928, et de la réaction de Carl Schmitt dans Hamlet ou Hécube (1956), nous montrons que Shakespeare met en scène la mortalité des corps politiques et la souveraineté nouvelle de l’intrigant dans le temps terrestre. Sommé de maîtriser l’art et le tempo de l’intrigue, le Prince est néanmoins impuissant à empêcher la décomposition de l’État. En prenant appui sur le drame élisabéthain, notamment sur le vertige mélancolique et sceptique d’Hamlet, nous interrogeons alors l’effort contemporain en vue de l’ordre et de la synchronisation dans la cité. La théorie hobbesienne de la représentation politique et juridique moderne rompt avec la conception mystique de l’unité politique et toute écriture inspirée des lois, tandis que la scène civile y est dédiée à la paix du commerce entre les individus afin de garantir les conditions d’une autonomie réelle dans la sphère privée. Réciproquement, cette autonomie doit pérenniser les solutions à la mélancolie et au scepticisme conceptualisées dans Léviathan. Tout en entérinant la tragédie de l’existence humaine et de tout savoir déjà mise en scène par Shakespeare, Léviathan évite d’emblée l’exaltation schmittienne ainsi que la violence « pure » logée, selon Benjamin, dans l’état d’exception de la subjectivité. À travers les spectres qui, chez Hobbes, n’ont plus droit de cité, la scène shakespearienne défait cependant les mécanismes de l’ordre et de la synchronisation continus, cela sans congédier le droit ni le projet de l’autonomie. / First, we examine the aspects of the political sovereignty on the Shakespearean stage. In the light of Walter Benjamin’s Origin of the German baroque drama (1928) and of Carl Schmitt’s answer to Benjamin in Hamlet or Hecuba (1956), we show that Shakespeare stages the mortality of the political bodies and the new sovereignty of the plotter. Urged to master the art and the tempo of the plot, the prince is nonetheless unable to prevent the decomposition of the state. Then, drawing on the Elizabethan drama, and especially on Hamlet, we question the contemporary effort towards order and synchronization within the city. Hobbes’s theory of political and juridical representation breaks with the mystical conception of political unity and with any inspired legislation, whereas the civil scene is dedicated to the peace between individuals in order to ensure the possibility of a real autonomy in the private sphere. Reciprocally, this autonomy must consolidate the solutions to the problems of melancholy and skepticism conceptualized in Leviathan. While endorsing the tragedy of human condition and of knowledge already put on stage by Shakespeare, Leviathan prevents Schmitt’s exaltation as well as the « pure » violence which, according to Benjamin, lies in the subject’s state of exception. Yet, through the ghosts that Leviathan cannot tolerate within the public sphere, the Shakespearean stage unravels the mechanisms of perpetual order and synchronization without rejecting the law and the project of autonomy.

Cette thèse étudie le rôle de la religion et du scepticisme vis-à-vis de la publicité dans l’évaluation par les consommateurs de visuels publicitaires sexuellement choquants. L’étude qualitative 1 a pour objectif d’explorer les questions éthiques et culturelles contribuant au développement du scepticisme envers publicités sexuellement choquantes. La méthodologie choisie s’est composé 22 entretiens semi-directifs auprès de consommateurs indonésiens. Les publicités à contenu sexuel choquant sont perçues comme trompeuses et irritantes et que les consommateurs développent fréquemment une forme de scepticisme face à ces visuels. L’étude qualitative 2, une netnographie montrent que les consommateurs ont la capacité de juger le motif de l'utilisation du contenu sexuel créé par le marketing que nous avons identifié comme le symptôme du scepticisme publicitaire. Enfin, l’étude quantitative a poursuivi une méthode quasi-expérimentale afin d’étudier le rôle du scepticisme, de la religiosité et des exécutions publicitaires sur les réactions des consommateurs envers les publicités sexuellement choquantes et les conséquences pour la marque. 1024 réponses de consommateurs indonésiens ont été recueillies au moyen de questionnaires en ligne. Les sceptiques expriment non seulement une attitude négative envers les publicités, ils sont aussi moins intéressés par la marque qui est mise en avant. Les résultats suggèrent également que les facteurs de religiosité influencent l'effet d’exécution de la publicité (congruence de publicité) sur l’irritation perçue, l’attitude envers la publicité, et l’embarras ressenti. / This doctoral thesis aims to understand the role of religion and advertising skepticism in shaping consumers’ perspective and behavior regarding sexually appealing advertising. The first qualitative study explores the ethical and cultural issues regarding sexually appealing advertising with 22 semi-structured interviews among Indonesian consumers. Results show that sexually appealing advertising is perceived as deceptive and irritating and that ad skepticism is a frequent response to the excessive use of sexual content in ads. The second qualitative study is a netnography which aims to better understand the characteristics of skepticism toward sexually appealing ads and identify its consequences on consumers’ attitude and behavior. Results show that consumers have the capability to judge the motive behind the use of sexual content created by the marketer that we identified as the symptom of the ad skepticism. Finally, the quantitative study was performed with a quasi-experiment method in order to investigate the role of skepticism toward sexually appealing advertising, religiosity, and advertising executions on consumers’ ad reactions and brand consequence. 1024 responses from Indonesian samples were collected through web-based questionnaires. The skeptics not only express the negative attitude toward the ads, they are also less interested in the brand being advertised. Results also suggest that religiosity influence the effect of ad-execution construct (i.e. ad congruity) on perceived ad irritation, attitude toward the ad, and embarrassment.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-27T17:27:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Joao Ribeiro de Almeida Borba.pdf: 2396785 bytes, checksum: 1e086dea321bf99c332b62ac2eba5aa3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-10-22 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The objective of this study is to examine how the method and the knowledge theory of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1808-1865), multi-disciplinar thinker and theorist-founder of the political anarchism, replays to the important philosophical problem of the construction of objective knowledges when this construction is confronted with some particular difficulties, that are imposed by contaminations due to the presence of personal approaching filters. The objective is justified by the fact whereof, although the number of studies about the proudhonian thoughs in sociology, economy and politics, the studies upon the philosophy of Proudhon, until now, are very poor. Until now, this author is almost unknown in the philosophical researches. The objective is justified, moreover, because his philosophy offers a way to establish a better dialogue and interaction among the philosophical theories and the popular thinking, applied to the social and diary-life questions. The pointed problem brings forward the discussions that Proudhon establish with known philosophies, and clearly localize, to the philosophers and academical searchers, his place in this particular area of knowledge. Focused in Proudhon s theory, the pointed problem offers, as a natural complement, a landscape of the political-philosophical confrontations at the XIXth century, about the destiny and the ways of human thinking, at the cross-roads of the alternatives offered by philosophy, religion and science. The examined hypothesis is that the way found by Proudhon to respond the focused problem, is a coherent and fruitful combination of relativism and skepticism, in an universal method to evaluate and develop knowledges. The Proudhon s theory is named by him Serial Theory , and his method, Serial Dialetics . This explanation, consequently, will show how relativism and skepticism are combined by Proudhon at the construction of this method and this theory, to offer a replay to the focused philosophical problem / O objetivo desta pesquisa é examinar o modo como o método e a teoria do conhecimento de Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1808-1865), pensador multi-disciplinar e fundador teórico do anarquismo político, respondem ao importante problema filosófico da construção de conhecimentos objetivos em face das dificuldades que se impõem a esse conhecimento devido à contaminação do saber filosófico por filtros de abordagem personalizados. O objetivo se justifica pelo fato de que, embora se tenha um conhecimento razoável de sua sociologia , de sua economia e de seus princípios políticos, os estudos sobre a filosofia de Proudhon são ainda muito pobres, visto que o autor não tem despertado a atenção de pesquisadores dessa área. Justifica-se também porque sua filosofia oferece um caminho para o maior diálogo e interação entre as teorias filosóficas e o pensamento popular, voltado para questões que a vida diária e o convívio social lhe sugerem. O problema focalizado traz à tona o debate de Proudhon com filosofias conhecidas, e o situa no centro de discussões com as quais os estudiosos de Filosofia já estão bem familiarizados, oferecendo também, em sua esteira, um panorama dos confrontos político-filosóficos no século XIX em torno da questão do destino e dos rumos do pensamento humano, em face da religião, da filosofia e da ciência como alternativas. A hipótese examinada é a de que, diante do problema da construção de conhecimentos objetivos em face dos filtros de abordagem personalizados da filosofia, Proudhon oferece como resposta um método universal para a avaliação e o desenvolvimento dos conhecimentos, que segue por um lado o caminho do ceticismo, e por outro o do relativismo, combinando as duas tendências de maneira coerente e frutífera. Proudhon chama sua teoria do conhecimento de Teoria Serial , e seu método, de Dialética Serial . Esta pesquisa, portanto, deve revelar o modo como o relativismo e o ceticismo se combinam, na construção desse método e dessa teoria do conhecimento, de maneira a oferecer uma resposta, a resposta proudhoniana, ao mencionado problema

<p>Frågeställningen i detta arbete består av huruvida det föreligger en idéförskjutning inom ateismen med utgångspunkt från den kristendomskritik som främst anfördes av Ingemar Hedenius i mitten av 1900-talet. Med idéförskjutning hänvisar jag till en tydlig stark ateism ur ett kunskapsteoretiskt perspektiv. En sådan idéförskjutning skulle kunna vara att någon ny argumentation framkommit som ökar eller minskar sannolikheten för Guds existens, eller att man kommit fram till ny definition av ”säker kunskap”, som ur ett naturvetenskapligt perspektiv skulle kunna förändra begreppets betydelse. Jag har inom ramen för uppsatsen studerat några ledande aktuella debattörer genom litteraturstudier och belyst pågående debatt för att finna kärnan i deras argumentation. De ateistiska ståndpunkterna och argumentation som belyses kommer främst från Ingemar Hedenius, Christer Sturmark, Richard Dawkins, Michel Onfray och Sam Harris. Dessa författare bidrar med unikt fokus i sin argumentation, men stöder sig mot samma grundläggande syn på sann och säker kunskap. Jag har funnit att en idéförskjutning ej föreligger. Däremot har begreppets praktiska betydelse vidgats. På samma sätt som formen för det personliga andliga utövandet förändrats har även begreppets språkliga innebörd generaliserats i syfte att kunna argumentera för ateism i en värld där religionens inflytande på nytt ökar.</p>

Frågeställningen i detta arbete består av huruvida det föreligger en idéförskjutning inom ateismen med utgångspunkt från den kristendomskritik som främst anfördes av Ingemar Hedenius i mitten av 1900-talet. Med idéförskjutning hänvisar jag till en tydlig stark ateism ur ett kunskapsteoretiskt perspektiv. En sådan idéförskjutning skulle kunna vara att någon ny argumentation framkommit som ökar eller minskar sannolikheten för Guds existens, eller att man kommit fram till ny definition av ”säker kunskap”, som ur ett naturvetenskapligt perspektiv skulle kunna förändra begreppets betydelse. Jag har inom ramen för uppsatsen studerat några ledande aktuella debattörer genom litteraturstudier och belyst pågående debatt för att finna kärnan i deras argumentation. De ateistiska ståndpunkterna och argumentation som belyses kommer främst från Ingemar Hedenius, Christer Sturmark, Richard Dawkins, Michel Onfray och Sam Harris. Dessa författare bidrar med unikt fokus i sin argumentation, men stöder sig mot samma grundläggande syn på sann och säker kunskap. Jag har funnit att en idéförskjutning ej föreligger. Däremot har begreppets praktiska betydelse vidgats. På samma sätt som formen för det personliga andliga utövandet förändrats har även begreppets språkliga innebörd generaliserats i syfte att kunna argumentera för ateism i en värld där religionens inflytande på nytt ökar.