La tesi mira a verificare l'effettiva esistenza del diritto umano all'acqua potabile. A questo fine viene studiata l'evoluzione del pensiero giuridico sull'accesso all'acqua potabile attraverso i principali strumenti di soft law, i le posizioni della dottrina e della giurisprudenza. Dal momento che l'accesso all'acqua potabile non compare nelle principali convenzioni dedicate ai diritti umani viene studiato il processo inferenziale che ha portato buona parte della dottrina a sostenere l'esistenza di tale diritto. Una volta individuato una comune definizione di diritto all'acqua, se ne analizzano le componenti, le obbligazioni ad esso relative e i legami tra tale diritto e gli altri diritti umani; a questo proposito viene proposta una breve analisi dell'esistenza di un diritto di accesso a fini agricoli. La conclusione si articola intorno all'ipotesi di un processo consuetudinario di formazione del diritto. Particolare attenzione a questo riguardo è posto sulle opinio iuris degli Stati che si sono espressi sul diritto all'acqua nelle più recenti risoluzioni dell'Assemblea Generale delle Nazioni Unite e del Consiglio per i Diritti dell'Uomo. / This thesis aims to investigate the existence of a human right to safe and potable water within the international law. As none of the main covenant related to human rights explicitly mentions the right to water, an inferential process used by doctrine had to be analysed in order to verify whether it was consistent with the purpose of affirming the existence of such a human right. Also main instruments of soft law have been studied. Particularly the latest resolution of the United Nations General Assembly and Human Rights Council have been accurately studied in order to verify the existence of a common "opinio iuris" among States. We consider that today a common opinion has actually emerged and therefore we suggest in conclusion to address a future research on the issue towards the analysis of State practices in order to verify the emerging of a customary right.

Il lavoro di ricerca ha a oggetto l’analisi del modello europeo (UE) di regolamentazione delle nanotecnologie nel settore agroalimentare, con riferimento agli aspetti etico-giuridici e sociali, ai fini della definizione del quadro normativo di riferimento nella sua relazione con la dimensione di complessità e incertezza intrinseca nel sapere scientifico-tecnologico. La prospettiva teorica da cui muove l’analisi è la co-produzione tra i linguaggi della scienza e del diritto proposta dagli STS (Science & Technologies Studies). Partendo dalla descrizione degli aspetti scientifici dei nanomateriali e delle applicazioni nanotecnologiche nel settore alimentare, il lavoro analizza, in primo luogo, le problematiche correlate alle procedure di gestione del rischio – dalle prospettive più riduzionistiche della cd. “scienza del rischio” nell'innovazione alle più complesse modalità di valutazione integrata del rischio. L’indagine s’incentra, quindi, sulle forme che la normazione sta assumendo nell'intreccio con i saperi delle nanotecnologie, attraverso un approccio comparatistico delle esperienze normative europea e statunitense. L’ultima parte del lavoro s’indirizza, infine, all’analisi delle esigenze di democraticità sottese alle suddette scelte scientifico-giuridiche, problematizzando il concetto di governance anticipatoria e responsabile delle nanotecnologie (concetto correlato all’idea di riuscire a guidare i processi di innovazione attivamente), alla luce del rapporto tra conoscenze scientifiche, politiche agroalimentari e diritto. / In recent decades technoscientific innovation has pushed the food boundaries to a new frontier of nanofood. Such a term refers to an array of food products, whose processes of growing, production and packaging involve nanoscale (nanotechnology and nanosciences) knowledges and applications. This research focuses on the analysis of the European (EU) regulatory framework in the field of agrofood nanotechnology. The analysis considers the salient features of emerging applications of nanotechnologies in the agrofood sector and compares the legal framework on nanofood in the EU with the USA’s regulatory approach. It also develops an interpretation of the normative evolution in the EU, by trying to understand what is the role of science in governing technological risks in nanofood safety, and assessing how adequate the regulatory instruments are in achieving the goal of responsible research and innovation as proposed within the process of rethinking European governance.

The object of this thesis is to investigate the application of international law in municipal law, and more specifically to focus on international human rights law. A determination of the sources of international human rights law constitutes the point of departure. Treaties are the primary source of international human rights law, followed by customary law. Recent authority indicates that the formation of customary human rights law differs from that of customary international law in general. There are, however, also international documents on human rights not falling within the scope of the traditional sources as embodied in section 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. Non-binding sources of law, or soft law - most notably the Universal Declaration of Human Rights - are shown to play an important role in the formation of both treaties and custom and directly influence state practice. Theoretical explanations expounding the application of international law in the domestic law of states are examined, assessing their suitability for effective implementation of international human rights instruments. Since the application of international law in municipal law depends on, and is regulated by rules of domestic law, the relevant rules of legal systems which may, due to historical factors or regional proximity, impact on South Africa, are examined. State practice points to two primary methods of dealing with international law obligations in domestic law, namely transformation (associated with the dualist theory) or direct application (associated with the monist theory). The specific method of incorporation adopted by a state is often closely related to that state's constitutional system. The advantages and disadvantages associated with each particular method are related to the intricacies of individual legal systems. From an internationalist perspective the often misunderstood doctrine of direct application, has the advantage of making the intended protection afforded by human rights treaties to individuals directly enforceable by domestic courts with a minimum of state intervention. The position of international law in South Africa is assessed against this background. South Africa's constitutional history under British rule followed British law requiring legislative transformation of treaty obligations, but permitting customary law to be directly incorporated into common law. The position of international law became constitutionally regulated in South Africa with the introduction of a constitutional democracy. Drafting errors and practical difficulties experienced with the 1993 Constitution, were largely ironed out by the 1996 Constitution. The post-apartheid Constitutions introduced changes and new dimensions compared to the pre-1993 position of international law, including: the consideration of international law when interpreting the constitutionally protected human rights; the involvement of the legislature in the treaty-making process; and provisions for both transformation and direct application of treaties subject to the provisions of the Constitution. Customary international law is confirmed as forming part of South African law, and courts are obliged to interpret legislation in accordance with international law. An analysis of court decisions after 1993 reveals the following broad trends: (i) The impact of international law as part of South African law is still largely overlooked. (ii) The majority of references to international law by the courts are to international human rights agreements and decisions by international tribunals under section 39 of the Bill of Rights. (iii) The distinction between international law and comparable foreign case law, as directed by section 39, is often blurred. (iv) No distinction is made between international hard and soft law when deciding on human rights matters. (v) Courts have refrained from applying international human rights obligations which form part of South African law because they are self-executing or form part of customary international law. (vi) Binding international human rights obligations are only referred to for comparative purposes. (vii) The term "treaty" is interpreted in accordance with the definition of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. The intention to create legally binding obligations is therefore implicit. It has been the policy of the post-apartheid South African government to ratify or accede to the major international human rights agreements as swiftly as possible. The execution of this policy has, however, met with numerous problems. As a result, South Africa has to date not become party to the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. Many treaties to which South Africa is a party have not yet been incorporated into South African law and compulsory reports on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights are overdue. Despite the post-apartheid euphoria about the creation of a human rights culture in South Africa and the formal commitment by government to give effect to international human rights instruments, much remains to be done before South Africa can be regarded as formally complying with international human rights standards. / Law / LL. D. (Law)

Contrairement à la doctrine fiscale, la doctrine administrative de la commande publique, quand bien même son assise est ancienne, n’a constitué que récemment un objet d’étude. Cependant, étant un outil essentiel pour les administrations, la doctrine administrative démontre à nouveau l’unilatéralité de l’action publique au motif qu’elle est l’instrumentum par lequel la direction des affaires juridiques des ministères économiques et financiers (DAJ) propose une interprétation de ce droit technique. Une étude empirique et prospective de cette doctrine administrative doit conduire à mettre en lumière toutes ces sources souterraines du droit de la commande publique sur lesquelles l’ensemble des acteurs s’appuie. / Contrary to the tax doctrine, the administrative doctrine of public contracts, even though its foundation is old, has only recently been an object of study. However, being an essential tool for the administrations, the administrative doctrine demonstrates the unilateral nature of the public action because it is the instrumentum by which the Direction of Legal Affairs of the economic and financial ministries (DAJ) gives an interpretation of this technical law field. An empirical and prospective study of this administrative doctrine should lead to highlighting all these underground sources of public contrats on which all the actors relies.

Inicialmente, esta dissertação apresenta o marco teórico conceitual em que se situa a sociedade internacional contemporânea, as fontes tradicionais do direito internacional expostas no art. 38 do Estatuto da Corte Internacional de Justiça, as possíveis novas fontes do direito internacional atos unilaterais de Estados, atos de organizações internacionais e Soft Law. É abordado em seguida o paradigma da soberania decorrente da modificação da sociedade internacional. Os fundamentos da Responsabilidade de Proteger (R2P) são levados a uma análise sob as diversas fontes do direito internacional. A R2P não se verifica como fonte autônoma do direito internacional nos princípios gerais de direitos, nas convenções internacionais e nos meios auxiliares da doutrina e da jurisprudência. Todavia, seu enquadramento é feito em duas teorias: branda e dinâmica. Em razão de seu caráter de formação de opinio juris e da prática reiterada, a teoria branda considera a R2P uma manifestação do costume internacional. Enquanto isso, a teoria dinâmica leva em consideração a evolução do direito internacional contemporâneo, que considera a Soft Law uma fonte autônoma, bem como as manifestações da R2P. Conclui-se, então, que a teoria da R2P está sedimentada nas fontes do direito internacional contemporâneo e clássico. / Firstly this thesis presents the conceptual framework in which lies the contemporary international society, the traditional sources of International Law - exposed in art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, the possible new sources of International Law - unilateral acts of States, international organizations and acts of Soft Law. Then, it brings forward the paradigm of sovereignty resulting from the modification of the international society. The foundations of the Responsibility to Protect are subject to an analysis emphasizing the variety of International Law sources. The R2P is not embraced as an autonomous source of International Law in the general principles, international conventions, doctrine and jurisprudence. However, its framing is analyzed in this thesis with two theories: \"mild\" and \"dynamic\". Considering the formation of opinio juris and the repeated practice, the mild theory considers R2P as a manifestation of international custom. Meanwhile, the dynamic theory takes into account the evolution of contemporary International Law, which considers Soft Law as an autonomous source, as well as the manifestations of R2P. So the conclusion is that the theory of R2P is based in the sources of contemporary and classic International Law.

Le sport européen est à la veille d'un bouleversement quant à sa prise en compte par le droit de l'UE et par le droit de la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme. Le constat du chevauchement de normes et de référentiels juridiques différents produisant des effets sur les sanctions infligées au « sportif citoyen européen » conduit à la répétition de difficultés relatives à la violation des principes d'égalité de traitement et d'intégrité des compétitions sportives. Cette thèse démontre la nécessité d'une européanisation des sanctions infligées au « sportif citoyen européen », et propose une réflexion sur les instruments juridiques de droit souple et de droit dur - existants ou à exploiter - susceptibles de répondre à cet objectif d'européanisation. L'originalité des travaux réside d'abord dans la réalisation d'enquêtes de terrain, puis dans le développement et les modifications à venir d'instruments de droit souple ou de droit dur existants, aux fins de combattre les atteintes aux principes précités en contribuant, de diverses façons, à l'européanisation des sanctions dans le domaine des activités sportives / European sport is on the verge of an upheaval as to its consideration by EU law and by the law of the European Convention on Human Rights. The finding of overlapping standards and different legal frameworks producing effects on the sanctions on the "European citizen athlete" leads to the repetition of difficulties relating to the infringement of the principles of equal treatment and of integrity of sport competitions. This thesis demonstrates the need for Europeanisation of sanctions imposed on the "European citizen athlete", and develops a reflection on the legal instruments of soft law and hard law - existing or to be developed - that may be of interest to meet that objective of Europeanisation. The originality of the work primarily lies in conducting field surveys, and secondly in the development and future changes in instruments of soft law or hard law existing for the purpose of combating violations of these principles, by contributing in various ways, to the Europeanisation of sanctions in the field of sports

Institution spécialisée du système des Nations Unies créée à la sortie de la Seconde guerre mondiale, l'Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS) s'est vu confiée, par l'article premier de sa Constitution, le but « d'amener tous les peuples au niveau de santé le plus élevé possible ». Pour atteindre cet objectif, les États membres lui ont conféré vingt-deux fonctions dont une normative. Cette dernière lui permet, en théorie, d’adopter à la fois des instruments de santé non contraignants et d'autres contraignants. L'étendue du champ d'application de cette fonction permet à l'OMS d'élaborer des normes au contenu très divers et varié dès lors qu'elle agit dans le cadre de son objectif sanitaire. Parallèlement, en raison de difficultés internes, propres à son organisation régionalisée et à une concurrence externe accrue par la multiplication d'acteurs de santé mondiale, l'OMS est à un tournant de son histoire comme en atteste l'envergure de la réforme qui est toujours en cours depuis 2010. Dans ce contexte, il s'agit de comprendre et d'analyser l'influence du rôle normatif de l'OMS dans les systèmes de santé nationaux. D'abord, une évaluation de son autorité normative, qui apparaît affaiblie, est proposée afin de présenter des évolutions pour la renforcer et ainsi améliorer la protection de la santé mondiale au sein d'un droit international de la santé consolidé. Ensuite, l'étude approfondie de son activité normative est envisagée pour délimiter la conception de la norme de l'OMS par le prisme de son efficacité. L'objectif in fine est de proposer une réflexion sur l'avenir du rôle normatif de l'OMS. / The World health organization (WHO), as a specialized agency, was created, after the Second world war with the objective of, according to article 1 of its Constitution, the "attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health”. For that purpose, the WHO was granted twenty two functions by the Member States including a normative one. This normative function allows, in theory, the WHO to adopt both binding and non binding health instruments. The extent of the scope of this function offers a wide and diverse content to theses norms with the only limit that it pursues a health purpose. At the same time, the WHO shows internal difficulties, in part, due to its regional structure and overall lack of financing. Further, the increase number and diversity of actors of global health result in potential external competition with the WHO. The reform initiated in 2010 and still ongoing proves that the WHO is a turning point in its history. In this context, this research seeks to understand and analyze the influence of the normative role of the WHO on national health systems. First, we study the normative authority of the WHO which appears weakened. With the objective of increasing health protection based on a reinforced global health law paradigm, our proposals aim at strengthening the normative authority of WHO. Then, our in-depth analysis of the normative activity of the WHO allows to the define the conception of norm by the WHO using effectiveness as our analytical frame. Finally, this research offers an opportunity to reflect on the future of the normative role of the WHO.

Les policiers jouent une rôle unique et névralgique dans notre société. Ils détiennent des pouvoirs exorbitants du droit commun, comme celui d’utiliser légalement la force ou de procéder à des arrestations. Ces pouvoirs doivent nécessairement être encadrés compte tenu de leur caractère invasif et de l’effet important qu’ils peuvent avoir sur les personnes visées. Les policiers ont également des devoirs importants : les citoyens attendent d’eux qu’ils luttent contre le crime et qu’ils soient en mesure d’assurer leur protection. Il ne faut donc pas se surprendre que les poursuites en responsabilité civile soient récurrentes contre les forces policières : elles sont le corolaire des pouvoirs et des devoirs majeurs qui leurs sont confiés. Le présent mémoire sur la responsabilité civile des forces policières en droit québécois vise d’abord à cerner l’organisation et l’encadrement des forces policières au Québec afin d’en évaluer l’impact sur la responsabilité civile de celles-ci. Nous verrons ensuite que le procès en responsabilité civile est souvent le dernier acte d’une série de procédures pénales, déontologiques et administratives mettant en scène les mêmes faits et les mêmes policiers impliqués. Puis, nous nous intéresserons à la norme de conduite applicable à la faute civile policière et à son évolution depuis le début du XXe siècle. La fonction policière s’est graduellement « professionnalisée » au cours des dernières décennies et les tribunaux se sont montrés en retour de plus en plus exigeants face aux policiers dans le cadre d’une poursuite en responsabilité civile, écartant notamment la notion d’immunité relative. Nous analyserons comment les tribunaux définissent la norme de conduite applicable, soit le policier raisonnable placé dans les mêmes circonstances, en s’appuyant notamment sur le droit souple (soft law), la déontologie policière, le droit criminel et pénal, les chartes, etc. Finalement, compte tenu que le travail policier est très diversifié, les fautes civiles susceptibles d’être commises sont variées. Le présent mémoire vise donc à « catégoriser » différentes situations qui mettent en cause la responsabilité civile des policiers, par exemple l’usage de la force, le profilage ou l’arrestation, le tout afin de dégager des règles spécifiques à chacune de ces situations. / Police forces play a unique and very sensitive role in our modern society. They hold extensive and singular powers, such as legally using force or restraint against citizen and making an arrest. Considering the great impact and the invasive nature of said powers, their exercise must be regulated and monitored. Police forces also have important duties: citizens rightfully expect police to repress crime and ensure their physical and material security. It is no surprise that civil claims against police forces are recurrent; they simply are the consequence of the high powers and duties vested in them. First, this thesis on civil liability of police forces in Quebec law aims at defining the legal, regulatory, and administrative framework of the Quebec police forces in order to evaluate the various impacts on their civil liability. We will also demonstrate that the civil trial is often the last episode of numerous judicial and administrative proceedings concerning the same events and the same police officers. Second, we will examine the applicable standard of conduct that a reasonable police officer is expected to meet and its evolution since the beginning of the twentieth century: in the last decades, police officers became professionals held to higher standards than before and civil courts now expect more from them, setting aside the notion of relative immunity they once benefited. We will analyze how the civil courts define the standard of a reasonable police officer in the same circumstances, notably building on soft law, charters, criminal and penal legislation, the professional codes of ethics, etc. Finally, considering the variety of tasks that police officers performed on a daily basis, different forms of civil faults can emanate from numerous situations. This thesis seeks to categorize various situations where the police forces can be held liable, such as unreasonable use of force, profiling, or arrest, in order to identify specific rules in each of these situations.

Cette étude traite des difficultés que rencontrent les travailleurs agricoles salariés dans l’exercice de leur droit à la liberté d’association et à la négociation collective. Ils sont souvent exclus des régimes législatifs nationaux de protection des droits syndicaux ou restreints dans leur capacité de les exercer en dépit du fait qu’ils sont parmi les plus pauvres et mal nourris de la planète et donc requerraient une protection accrue. Quelles sont les causes historiques de ce traitement discriminatoire (première partie) ? Comment le droit international du travail contribue-t-il à remédier à cette situation (deuxième partie) ? En quoi est-ce que le droit international du travail a-t-il influencé le droit interne canadien pour la protection des travailleurs agricoles salariés (troisième partie) ? Les causes du traitement singulier accordé à ces travailleurs remontent aux origines mêmes de l’agriculture. Consciente des caractéristiques particulières de cette activité, l’Organisation internationale du travail affirmera dès le début du 20e siècle qu’il est injustifié d’empêcher les travailleurs agricoles salariés de se syndiquer. Elle insiste sur la valeur fondamentale des droits syndicaux devant différents forums onusiens et favorise leur promotion à travers l’élaboration de normes du travail mais également d’instruments de soft law, considérés mieux adaptés dans un contexte contemporain de mondialisation. Ce droit international du travail influencera ensuite l’interprétation de la Charte canadienne des droits et libertés par les tribunaux canadiens dans leur analyse de la constitutionnalité de l’exclusion totale ou partielle des travailleurs agricoles salariés des régimes législatifs de protection des droits syndicaux. / This study analyses the difficulties faced by agricultural workers exercising their rights to freedom of association and collective bargaining. These workers often find themselves excluded from national legislation providing for the protection of union rights, and when these rights are provided to them, their ability to exercise them is limited. Being amongst the poorest human beings on earth, agricultural workers would instead require stronger protection. What are the historical causes of this discriminatory treatment (part one) ? How has international labour law helped to correct this situation (part two) ? In what way did international labour law influence canadian domestic law in regard of the protection of wage earning agricultural workers (part three) ? The reasons for the singular treatment of this class of workers go back to agriculture’s very roots. Conscious of the particular characteristics of this activity, the International Labour Organisation asserted, at the very beginning of the 20th century, that no justification stood to limit the rights of agricultural workers to unionize. It later insisted on the fundamental value of union rights in front of diverse UN forums and favoured their promotion for agricultural workers through the elaboration of labour standards as well as extensive use of soft law tools, considered more suited to the globalised world. International labour law also contributed to the interpretation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedom by Canadian courts in their analysis of the constitutionality of total or partial exclusion of agricultural workers from legislation protecting union rights.

L’arbitrage commercial international est le mode alternatif de règlement de différends le plus utilisé dans le monde. Ce qui contribue notamment à en faire l’acteur principal de la diffusion des règles anationales telles que les principes généraux du droit, les usages du commerce international, ou encore la "lex mercatoria" qui sont souvent choisies par les arbitres en tant que droit applicable au fond du litige. Ce choix s’est étendu aux nouvelles règles élaborées par des institutions internationales privées telles que les Principes d’UNIDROIT relatifs aux contrats du commerce international. Une codification doctrinale conçue comme un instrument de "soft law" et qui trouve de plus en plus application dans la pratique arbitrale. Notre étude cependant montre que peu de sentences arbitrales rendues dans des affaires dont l’une des parties est arabe ont fait référence aux Principes Unidroit. L’explication n’est pas à rechercher dans une incompatibilité entre ceux-ci et le droit des contrats des pays arabes mais dans la méconnaissance de cette codification doctrinale par les juristes arabes. À cela s’ajoute un sentiment de méfiance à l’égard d’une manifestation de la soft law. Il convient dès lors de s’interroger sur les moyens qui permettraient aux Principes Unidroit de trouver leur place dans le droit et la pratique des pays arabes. / International commercial arbitration is the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) the most used in the world. Which contributes in particular to make the main actor of the diffusion of a-national rules as the general principles of law, usages of international trade, or the lex mercatoria, often chosen by the arbitrators as the law applicable to the substantive of the dispute. This choice was extended to the new rules developed by private international institutions such as the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts. A doctrinal codification conceived as a soft law instrument, which is increasingly applied in arbitration practice. Our study shows, however, that few awards rendered in cases in which one of the parties is Arabic made a reference to UNIDROIT Principles. The explanation is not to look for in an incompatibility between them and contract law in Arab countries but in the ignorance of this doctrinal codification by Arab jurists and lawyers. Added to this, a feeling of distrust a manifestation of soft law. It is therefore necessary to consider the ways in which the UNIDROIT Principles to find their place in the law and practice of the Arab countries.