In the Northern Athabaskan languages Tlicho Yatiì, Dene and Dene Dzage, copulas and auxiliary verbs are based on reflexes of two Proto-Athabaskan roots, *-LII and *-T’E’. I propose that in the first two languages, copulas with nominal complements show distributional differences that derive from a stage-/individual-level predicate distinction, and that historically, this distinction in the proto-language motivated the development of auxiliaries marking tense/aspect/mode distinctions solely from the copulas based on *-LII. Further, I propose that subsequent to this development, the original stage-/individual-level predicate distinction between the copulas disappeared in Dene Dzage, leaving the TAM markers as evidence of its historical existence. I provide support for these contentions with data from fieldwork in Tlicho Yatiì and from textual sources in all three languages, grounding the work in current theories of syntax and of temporal grammar.

Made available in DSpace on 2010-04-20T21:00:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 4 Fabio Nunes Barja.pdf.jpg: 2268 bytes, checksum: 3ff1d834aa6bf6835efe6dd07835326c (MD5) Fabio Nunes Barja.pdf.txt: 144718 bytes, checksum: 86d161817200706186fc58ff0c7b1cd4 (MD5) license.txt: 4712 bytes, checksum: 4dea6f7333914d9740702a2deb2db217 (MD5) Fabio Nunes Barja.pdf: 920446 bytes, checksum: 547cbd04aa1355d329be524b2fe94b1d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-11-30T00:00:00Z / Este trabalho aplica a teoria de cópulas à mensuração do risco de mercado, através do cálculo do Value at Risk (VaR). A função de cópula oferece uma maior flexibilidade para a agregação de riscos quando comparada com abordagens tradicionais de mensuração de risco. A teoria de cópulas permite a utilização de distribuições de probabilidade diferentes da normal para a modelagem individual dos fatores de risco. Além disso, diferentes estruturas de associação entre eles podem ser aplicadas sem que restrições sejam impostas às suas distribuições. Dessa forma, premissas como a normalidade conjunta dos retornos e a linearidade na dependência entre fatores de risco podem ser dispensadas, possibilitando a correta modelagem de eventos conjuntos extremos e de assimetria na relação de dependência. Após a apresentação dos principais conceitos associados ao tema, um modelo de cópula foi desenvolvido para o cálculo do VaR de três carteiras, expostas aos mercados brasileiros cambial e acionário. Em seguida, a sua precisão foi comparada com a das metodologias tradicionais delta-normal e de simulação histórica. Os resultados mostraram que o modelo baseado na teoria de cópulas foi superior aos tradicionais na previsão de eventos extremos, representados pelo VaR 99%. No caso do VaR 95%, o modelo delta-normal apresentou o melhor desempenho. Finalmente, foi possível concluir que o estudo da teoria de cópulas é de grande relevância para a gestão de riscos financeiros. Fica a sugestão de que variações do modelo de VaR desenvolvido neste trabalho sejam testadas, e que esta teoria seja também aplicada à gestão de outros riscos, como o de crédito, operacional, e até mesmo o risco integrado. / This study applies the theory of copulas to the measurement of market risk by doing the Value at Risk (VaR) calculation. The copula function offers a greater flexibility to aggregate the risks as compared to traditional approaches of risk measurement. The theory of copulas enables the use of probability distributions different from the normal to the individual modeling of risk factors. Furthermore, different association structures between them can be applied with no restrictions being imposed to its distributions. Thus, premises such as joint normality of returns and linearity in the dependence between risk factors can be dismissed, what enables the correct modelling of extreme joint events and of asymmetry in the dependence relation. After presenting the main concepts associated to the theme, a copula model was developed in order to calculate the VaR for three portfolios which are exposed to the Brazilian foreign exchange and stock markets. Afterwards, its accuracy was compared with that of traditional methodologies, i.e., delta-normal and historic simulation. The results showed that the model based on the theory of copulas was superior to the traditional ones at forecasting extreme events, which are represented by VaR 99%. When it comes to VaR 95%, the delta-normal model presented the best results. Finally, it was possible to conclude that the theory of copulas study is of great relevance to financial risks management. For further research, a suggestion is testing variations of the VaR model developed in this work, as well as applying this theory to managing other risks, such as credit, operational or even integrated risk.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:06:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 5762.pdf: 2315381 bytes, checksum: 2d23013b02c4b33dcbf1b10405b613b9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-12 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / In this work, we present and discuss the operational risk in the financial institutions, Basel Accord II, the structure of dependence between cumulative operational losses, a tool for modeling this dependence (theory of copula) and the allocation of a capital, called regulatory capital. The usual method for calculation of regulatory capital for operational risk, suggested by Basel Committee, overestimates the final capital because it is considered that the losses are perfectly positively dependents. Then, we propose a new method for this calculation based on theory of copula for the bivariate case. Such method models the dependence between two losses and considers a index (representing the expert opinion). We discuss also a method studied on Alexander (2003) and perform a simulation study in order to compare all methods, the usual, the proposed and the convolution one. / Nesse trabalho, abordamos o risco operacional nas instituições financeiras sob o ponto de vista do Acordo de Basileia II, a característica da presença de dependência estocástica entre as variáveis aleatórias em questão, a ferramenta para modelagem de tal dependência (teoria de cópulas) e a alocação de capital regulatório. Como o método usual para alocação de capital regulatório sugerido pelo Acordo de Basileia II superestima tal capital por considerar que as variáveis perdas são perfeitamente dependentes, propomos neste trabalho uma metodologia alternativa, baseada em teoria de cópulas, para o caso bivariado. Tal metodologia modela a dependência entre duas perdas e ainda inclui a opinião de especialistas da área no modelo final. Também discutimos uma metodologia existente na literatura (método da convolução) e fazemos um estudo de simulação para analisar o comportamento dos métodos abordados: método usual, proposto e da convolução.

Este estudo contempla dois ensaios em finanças quantitativas, relacionados, respectivamente, a modelos de apreçamento e risco sistêmico. No Capitulo 1, e apresentado uma alternativa para modelar opções multidimensionais, cujas estruturas de ganhos e perdas dependam das trajetórias dos processos dos preços dos ativos objetos. A modelagem sugerida considera os processos de Levy, uma classe de processos estocásticos bastante ampla, que permite a existência de saltos (descontinuidades) no processo dos preços dos ativos financeiros, e tem como caso particular o movimento Browniano. Para escrever a dependência entre os processos, os conceitos estáticos de copulas ordinárias são estendidos para o contexto dos processos de Levy, levando em consideração a medida de Levy, que caracteriza o comportamento dos saltos. São realizados estudos comparativos entre as copulas dinâmicas de Clayton e de Frank, no apreçamento dos contratos derivativos do tipo asiático, utilizando-se processos gama e técnicas de simulação de Monte Carlo. No Capitulo 2, a estrutura e dinâmica interbancária das exposições mutuas entre as instituições financeiras no Brasil e explorada bem como o capital destas reservas, utilizando um conjunto de dados únicos que considera vários períodos entre 2007 e 2008. Para isto e mostrado que a rede de exposições pode ser modelada adequadamente como um gráfico estocástico dirigido de escala - livre (ponderada) seguindo distribuições que apresentam caudas grossas. A relação entre as conexões das instituições financeiras e seu colchão-de-capital também são investigados neste estudo. Finalmente, a estrutura da rede e usada para explorar a extensão de risco sistêmico gerada no sistema individualmente pelas instituições financeiras. / This study comprises two essays in quantitative finance, related, respectively, to models in asset pricing and systemic risk. In Chapter 1, it is presented an alternative to modeling multidimensional options, where the pay-offs depend on the paths of the trajectories of the underlying-asset prices. The proposed technique considers Levy processes, a very ample class of stochastic processes that allows the existence of jumps (discontinuities) in the price process of financial assets, and as a particular case, comprises the Brownian motion. To describe the dependence among Levy processes, extending the static concepts of the ordinary copulas to the Levy processes context, considering the Levy measure, which characterizes the jumps behavior of these processes. A comparison between the Clayton and the Frank dynamic copulas and their impact in asset pricing of Asian type derivatives contracts is studied, considering gamma processes and Monte Carlo simulation procedures. In Chapter 2, the structure and dynamics of interbank exposures in Brazil using a unique data set of all mutual exposures of financial institutions in Brazil is explored, as well as their capital reserves, at various periods in 2007 and 2008. It is shown that the network of exposures can be adequately modeled as a directed scale-free (weighted) graph with heavy-tailed degree and weight distributions. The relation between connectivity of a financial institution and its capital buffer are also investigated in this study. Finally, the network structure is used to explore the extent of systemic risk generated in the system by the individual institutions.

In 2005 Attilio Meucci presented his article Beyond Black-Litterman: Views on Non-Normal Markets which introduces the copula opinion pooling approach using generic non-normal market assumptions. Copulas and opinion pooling are used to express views on the market which provides a posterior market distribution that smoothly blends an arbitrarily distributed market prior distribution with arbitrarily chosen views. This thesis explains how to use this method in practice and investigates its performance in different investment situations. The method is tested on three portfolios, each showing some different feature. The conclusions that can be drawn are e.g. that the method can be used in many different investment situations in many different ways, implementation and calculations can be made within a few seconds for a large data set and the method could be useful for portfolio managers using mathematical methods. The presented examples together with the method generate reasonable results.

The global financial crisis that took off in 2007 gave rise to several adjustments of the risk regulation for banks. An extensive adjustment, that is to be implemented in 2019, is the Fundamental Review of the Trading Book (FRTB). It proposes to use Expected Shortfall (ES) as risk measure instead of the currently used Value at Risk (VaR), as well as applying varying liquidity horizons based on the various risk levels of the assets involved. A major difficulty of implementing the FRTB lies within the backtesting of ES. Righi and Ceretta proposes a robust ES backtest based on Monte Carlo simulation. It is flexible since it does not assume any probability distribution and can be performed without waiting for an entire backtesting period. Implementing some commonly used VaR backtests as well as the ES backtest by Righi and Ceretta, yield a perception of which risk models that are the most accurate from both a VaR and an ES backtesting perspective. It can be concluded that a model that is satisfactory from a VaR backtesting perspective does not necessarily remain so from an ES backtesting perspective and vice versa. Overall, the models that are satisfactory from a VaR backtesting perspective turn out to be probably too conservative from an ES backtesting perspective. Considering the confidence levels proposed by the FRTB, from a VaR backtesting perspective, a risk measure model with a normal copula and a hybrid distribution with the generalized Pareto distribution in the tails and the empirical distribution in the center along with GARCH filtration is the most accurate one, as from an ES backtesting perspective a risk measure model with univariate Student’s t distribution with ⱱ ≈ 7 together with GARCH filtration is the most accurate one for implementation. Thus, when implementing the FRTB, the bank will need to compromise between obtaining a good VaR model, potentially resulting in conservative ES estimates, and obtaining a less satisfactory VaR model, possibly resulting in more accurate ES estimates. The thesis was performed at SAS Institute, an American IT company that develops software for risk management among others. Targeted customers are banks and other financial institutions. Investigating the FRTB acts a potential advantage for the company when approaching customers that are to implement the regulation framework in a near future. / Den globala finanskrisen som inleddes år 2007 ledde till flertalet ändringar vad gäller riskreglering för banker. En omfattande förändring som beräknas implementeras år 2019, utgörs av Fundamental Review of the Trading Book (FRTB). Denna föreslår bland annat användande av Expected Shortfall (ES) som riskmått istället för Value at Risk (VaR) som används idag, liksom tillämpandet av varierande likviditetshorisonter beroende på risknivåerna för tillgångarna i fråga. Den huvudsakliga svårigheten med att implementera FRTB ligger i backtestingen av ES. Righi och Ceretta föreslår ett robust ES backtest som baserar sig på Monte Carlo-simulering. Det är flexibelt i den mening att det inte antar någon specifik sannolikhetsfördelning samt att det går att implementera utan att man behöver vänta en hel backtestingperiod. Vid implementation av olika standardbacktest för VaR, liksom backtestet för ES av Righi och Ceretta, fås en uppfattning av vilka riskmåttsmodeller som ger de mest korrekta resultaten från både ett VaR- och ES-backtestingperspektiv. Sammanfattningsvis kan man konstatera att en modell som är acceptabel från ett VaR-backtestingperspektiv inte nödvändigtvis är det från ett ES-backtestingperspektiv och vice versa. I det hela taget har det visat sig att de modeller som är acceptabla ur ett VaR-backtestingperspektiv troligtvis är för konservativa från ett ESbacktestingperspektiv. Om man betraktar de konfidensnivåer som föreslagits i FRTB, kan man ur ett VaR-backtestingperspektiv konstatera att en riskmåttsmodell med normal-copula och en hybridfördelning med generaliserad Pareto-fördelning i svansarna och empirisk fördelning i centrum tillsammans med GARCH-filtrering är den bäst lämpade, medan det från ett ES-backtestingperspektiv är att föredra en riskmåttsmodell med univariat Student t-fördelning med ⱱ ≈ 7 tillsammans med GARCH-filtrering. Detta innebär att när banker ska implementera FRTB kommer de behöva kompromissa mellan att uppnå en bra VaR-modell som potentiellt resulterar i för konservativa ES-estimat och en modell som är mindre bra ur ett VaRperspektiv men som resulterar i rimligare ES-estimat. Examensarbetet genomfördes vid SAS Institute, ett amerikanskt IT-företag som bland annat utvecklar mjukvara för riskhantering. Tänkbara kunder är banker och andra finansinstitut. Denna studie av FRTB innebär en potentiell fördel för företaget vid kontakt med kunder som planerar implementera regelverket inom en snar framtid. / Riskhantering, finansiella tidsserier, Value at Risk, Expected Shortfall, Monte Carlo-simulering, GARCH-modellering, Copulas, hybrida distributioner, generaliserad Pareto-fördelning, extremvärdesteori, Backtesting, likviditetshorisonter, Basels regelverk

Nous y introduisons une nouvelle classe de distributions bivariées de type Marshall-Olkin, la distribution Erlang bivariée. La transformée de Laplace, les moments et les densités conditionnelles y sont obtenus. Les applications potentielles en assurance-vie et en finance sont prises en considération. Les estimateurs du maximum de vraisemblance des paramètres sont calculés par l'algorithme Espérance-Maximisation. Ensuite, notre projet de recherche est consacré à l'étude des processus de risque multivariés, qui peuvent être utiles dans l'étude des problèmes de la ruine des compagnies d'assurance avec des classes dépendantes. Nous appliquons les résultats de la théorie des processus de Markov déterministes par morceaux afin d'obtenir les martingales exponentielles, nécessaires pour établir des bornes supérieures calculables pour la probabilité de ruine, dont les expressions sont intraitables. / In this contribution, we introduce a new class of bivariate distributions of Marshall-Olkin type, called bivariate Erlang distributions. The Laplace transform, product moments and conditional densities are derived. Potential applications of bivariate Erlang distributions in life insurance and finance are considered. Further, our research project is devoted to the study of multivariate risk processes, which may be useful in analyzing ruin problems for insurance companies with a portfolio of dependent classes of business. We apply results from the theory of piecewise deterministic Markov processes in order to derive exponential martingales needed to establish computable upper bounds of the ruin probabilities, as their exact expressions are intractable.

Diese Dissertation konzentriert sich auf das hochdimensionale Financial Engineering, insbesondere in der Dependenzmodellierung und der sequentiellen Überwachung. Im Bereich der Dependenzmodellierung wird eine Einführung hochdimensionaler Kopula vorgestellt, die sich auf den Stand der Forschung in Kopula konzentriert. Eine komplexere Anwendung im Financial Engineering, bei der eine hochdimensionale Kopula verwendet wird, konzentriert sich auf die Bepreisung von Portfolio-ähnlichen Kreditderivaten, d. h. CDX-Tranchen (Credit Default Swap Index). In diesem Teil wird die konvexe Kombination von Kopulas in der CDX-Tranche mit Komponenten aus der elliptischen Kopula-Familie (Gaussian und Student-t), archimedischer Kopula-Familie (Frank, Gumbel, Clayton und Joe) und hierarchischer archimedischer Kopula-Familie vorgeschlagen. Im Abschnitt über finanzielle Überwachung konzentriert sich das Kapitel auf die Überwachung von hochdimensionalen Portfolios (in den Dimensionen 5, 29 und 90) durch die Entwicklung eines nichtparametrischen multivariaten statistischen Prozesssteuerungsdiagramms, d.h. eines Energietest-basierten Kontrolldiagramms (ETCC). Um die weitere Forschung und Praxis der nichtparametrischen multivariaten statistischen Prozesskontrolle zu unterstützen, die in dieser Dissertation entwickelt wurde, wird ein R-Paket "EnergyOnlineCPM" entwickelt. Dieses Paket wurde im Moment akzeptiert und veröffentlicht im Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN), welches das erste Paket ist, das die Verschiebung von Mittelwert und Kovarianz online überwachen kann. / This dissertation focuses on the high dimensional financial engineering, especially in dependence modeling and sequential surveillance. In aspect of dependence modeling, an introduction of high dimensional copula concentrating on state-of-the-art research in copula is presented. A more complex application in financial engineering using high dimensional copula is concentrated on the pricing of the portfolio-like credit derivative, i.e. credit default swap index (CDX) tranches. In this part, the convex combination of copulas is proposed in CDX tranche pricing with components stemming from elliptical copula family (Gaussian and Student-t), Archimedean copula family (Frank, Gumbel, Clayton and Joe) and hierarchical Archimedean copula family used in some publications. In financial surveillance part, the chapter focuses on the monitoring of high dimensional portfolios (in 5, 29 and 90 dimensions) by development of a nonparametric multivariate statistical process control chart, i.e. energy test based control chart (ETCC). In order to support the further research and practice of nonparametric multivariate statistical process control chart devised in this dissertation, an R package "EnergyOnlineCPM" is developed. At moment, this package has been accepted and published in the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN), which is the first package that can online monitor the shift in mean and covariance jointly.

O principal objetivo deste estudo é descrever modelos para séries temporais de ativos financeiros que sejam robustos às tradicionais hipóteses: distribuição gaussiana e continuidade. O primeiro capítulo está preocupado em apresentar, de uma maneira geral, os conceitos matemáticos mais importantes relacionadas a processos estocásticos e difusões. O segundo capítulo trata de processos de incrementos independentes e estacionários, i.e., processos de Lévy, suas trajetórias estocásticas, propriedades distribucionais e, a relação entre processos markovianos e martingales. Alguns dos resultados apresentados neste capítulo são: a estrutura e as propriedades dos processos compostos de Poisson, medida de Lévy, decomposição de Lévy-Itô e representação de Lévy-Khinchin. O terceiro capítulo mostra como construir processos de Lévy por meio de transformações lineares, inclinação da medida de Lévy e subordina ção. Uma atenção especial é dada aos processos subordinados, tais como os modelos variância gama, normal gaussiana invertida e hiperbólico generalizado. Neste capítulo também é apresentado um exemplo pragmático com dados brasileiros de estimação de parâmetros por meio do método de máxima Verossimilhança. O quarto capítulo é devotado aos modelos multidimensionais e, introduz os conceito de cópula ordinária e de Lévy. Mostra-se que é possível caracterizar a dependência entre os componentes de um processo de Lévy multidimensional por meio da cópula de Lévy. Entre os resultados apresentados estão as generalizações do teorema de Sklar e a família de cópulas de Arquimedes aos processos de Lévy. Este capítulo também apresenta alguns exemplos que utilizam métodos de Monte Carlo, para simular processos de Lévy bidimensionais. / The main objective of this study is to describe models for financial assets time series that are robust to the traditional hypothesis: gaussian distributed and continuity. The first chapter are devoted to introduce the most important mathematical tools related to difusions and stochastic processes in general. The second chapter is concerned in the study of independent and stationary increments, i.e., Lévy processes, their sample paths behavior, distributional properties, and the relation to Markov and martingales processes. Some of the results presented are the structure and properties of a compound Poisson processes, Lévy measure, Lévy-Itô decomposition and Lévy-Khinchin representation. The third chapter demonstrates how to construct Lévy processes via linear transformation, tempering the Lévy measure and subordination. A special attention is given to several types of subordinated processes, comprising the variance gamma, the normal inverse gaussian and the generalized hyperbolic models. A pragmatic example of parameter estimation for brazilian data using the method of maximum likelihood is also given. Chapter four is devoted to multidimensional models, which introduces the notion of ordinary and Lévy copulas. It is shown that modelling via Lévy copula it is possible to characterize the dependence among components of multidimensional Lévy processes. Some of the results presented are generalizations of the Sklar’s theorem and the Archmedian family of copulas for Lévy processes. This chapter also presents some examples using Monte Carlo methods for simulating bidimensional Lévy processes.

Nous y introduisons une nouvelle classe de distributions bivariées de type Marshall-Olkin, la distribution Erlang bivariée. La transformée de Laplace, les moments et les densités conditionnelles y sont obtenus. Les applications potentielles en assurance-vie et en finance sont prises en considération. Les estimateurs du maximum de vraisemblance des paramètres sont calculés par l'algorithme Espérance-Maximisation. Ensuite, notre projet de recherche est consacré à l'étude des processus de risque multivariés, qui peuvent être utiles dans l'étude des problèmes de la ruine des compagnies d'assurance avec des classes dépendantes. Nous appliquons les résultats de la théorie des processus de Markov déterministes par morceaux afin d'obtenir les martingales exponentielles, nécessaires pour établir des bornes supérieures calculables pour la probabilité de ruine, dont les expressions sont intraitables. / In this contribution, we introduce a new class of bivariate distributions of Marshall-Olkin type, called bivariate Erlang distributions. The Laplace transform, product moments and conditional densities are derived. Potential applications of bivariate Erlang distributions in life insurance and finance are considered. Further, our research project is devoted to the study of multivariate risk processes, which may be useful in analyzing ruin problems for insurance companies with a portfolio of dependent classes of business. We apply results from the theory of piecewise deterministic Markov processes in order to derive exponential martingales needed to establish computable upper bounds of the ruin probabilities, as their exact expressions are intractable.