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Divine Command Theory är en metaetisk position som innebär att vår moraliska kompass bör grunda sig i vad Gud anser är rätt eller fel. Givet att det existerar objektiva moraliska sanningar, är Divine Command Theory den mest lämpliga teorin för att på ett logiskt och kongruent sätt besvara på frågorna vart moraliska förpliktelser härstammar ifrån, hur vi känner till dessa förpliktelser och varför vi bör leva våra liv i enlighet med dem. Andra framträdande metaetiska positioner som evolutionsbaserad etik, moralisk realism och konstruktivism lyckas besvara olika enstaka aspekter av dessa frågor, men inte på ett kongruent, holistiskt och tillfredsställande vis. Således behöver vi Gud för att grunda objektiv moral. Invändningen Euthyphros dilemma besvaras med att det inte är ett dilemma. Invändningen the pluralism objection, besvaras med att det ensamt inte kan motbevisa giltigheten av teorin. Inom Shari’an förmedlas en sofistikerad samt holistisk syn på moral. Människans universella skyldighet att lyda Gud samt att följa profeten, i syfte att uppnå moralisk korrekthet, uttrycks i koranen. För att säkerställa detta fordrar det en korrekt tolkning av Shari’an. Relationen mellan moraliska förpliktelser och vilka som bär dess ansvar behandlas med utgångspunkt i individens förmågor, egenskaper, samt individuella omständigheter. Eftersom Gud är Allvetande känner han till varje individs situation. Andra aspekter av moral som sedvanliga metaetiska positioner typiskt inte behandlar, som intention och ansträngning lyfts i Shari’an. Vidare finner vi både positiva och negativa påföljder beroende på om man följer förpliktelserna eller inte. Påföljderna kategoriseras i två delar, den ena behandlar detta liv och den andra behandlar det nästkommande livet. Påföljderna svarar på den moralfilosofiska frågan varför man bör vara moralisk. Inom Islam inkluderas även djur och natur som subjekt vilka man har moraliskt ansvar för.

ジョン・ロールズの「公正としての正義」は、どのような内実をもつ規範であれ、公正な正当化の条件のもとで合意された規範を公正という意味で正しいとみなす正義の形式的・手続き的構想である。この構想においては、自分の判断を理由に自由に行為する「理性的人格」の観念、自分の判断のもとで理由を構築する理性的人格の「理由の道徳的権利」、そして自分の判断を理由に行為する「自由の道徳的権利」が想定されている。本論文は、これら二つの道徳的権利の尊重という理性的に拒否され得ない義務のもとでロールズの正義の理論を道徳性の形式的・手続き的なカント的理論として再構成し、それを理性的人格の道徳的アイデンティティに根拠づけた。 / John Rawls' "justice as fairness" is the formal or procedural conception of justice that recognizes only norms that could be agreed under fair conditions are just in the sense that they are fair, whatever contents they might have. In this conception, the idea of a reasonable person, the moral right of reasonable persons to construct reasons, and the moral right to act in freedom on these reasons are presumed. I have critically reconstructed Rawls' theory of justice as a formal or procedural Kantian theory of morality on the basis of reasonably unrejectable duty to respect these two moral rights, and grounded it upon the moral identity of reasonable persons. / 博士(哲学) / Doctor of Philosophy / 同志社大学 / Doshisha University

Fotbollsagenter har verkat inom fotboll under en längre tid. Deras avsikt är att representera spelare och klubbar i spelarövergångar och kontraktsförhandlingar. När fotbollen gick över från amatörism till professionellt utövande växte branschen och utvecklingen har över tid blivit allt större. Genom fotbollens expansion, står agenter kvar som en nyckelfaktor inom fotbollens marknad. I takt med att antalet agenter har ökat har fotbollsmarknaden sett en växande tillströmning av olicensierade agenter. Oetiska metoder har påverkat den allmänna uppfattningen om agenter negativt och därmed har trovärdigheten kring agenter ifrågasatts. Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur agenter inom svensk fotboll skapar legitimitet samt hur de arbetar etiskt och moraliskt i relation till sina representanter. För att genomföra detta kommer studien även att undersöka agenternas grundfunktion inom svensk fotboll. Genom ett fenomenografiskt angreppssätt har perspektiv från fotbollsagenter, fotbollsspelare och Svenska Fotbollsförbundet undersökts. Detta har genomförts genom semistrukturerade intervjuer för att skapa en helhetsbild av branschen. Studiens resultat indikerar att ett starkt förtroende och en god kommunikation mellan spelaren och agenten är grundförutsättningar för ett legitimt arbete. Dessutom är transparens och ett noggrant utfört arbete viktiga aspekter som skapar legitimitet hos agenter. Genomgående i studien var även att formella regelverk har en väsentlig del i hur legitimt agentbranschen uppfattas. Slutligen har etiska perspektiv bidragit till värdefulla synvinklar om agenternas arbete. / Football agents have been present in football for a long time. Their goal is representing players and clubs with player transfers and contract negotiations. As football has shifted from amateurism to a professional practice, the industry has grown and the development has rapidly expanded over time. Through the expansion, agents remain a key factor in the football market. As the number of agents has increased, the football market has seen a growing influx of unlicensed agents. Unethical practices have negatively affected the general perception of agents and thus the credibility of agents has been called into question. The purpose of this study is to investigate how agents in Swedish football create legitimacy and how they work ethically and morally in relation to their clients. In order to do this, the study will also examine the agents' function in Swedish football. Through a phenomenographic approach, perspectives from football agents, football players and the Swedish Football Association have been studied. This collection of data has been gathered through semi-structured interviews to create an overall picture of the industry. The results of the study indicate that strong trust, good communication, transparent and diligent work between the player and the agent are vital aspects which create legitimacy for agents. It was also consistently found in the study that formal regulations play a significant role in how legitimate the agent industry is perceived. Lastly, the ethical perspectives used in the study to evaluate agents has brought valuable viewpoints about the agents' moral decision-making at work.

In this study of Lev Shestov, the biographical method is used to explain his philosophy. The grave crisis or nervous breakdown Shestov went through caused a total transformation of his - convictions and values. It was probably this drama that led to his repudiation of the common life and traditional philosophy with its emphasis on reason, knowledge, and ethics in favour of an extreme individualism and religious transcendence. The aim of the dissertation is to examine, amongst the great number of philosophers and writers Shestov analysed, mainly those in his view “marginal thinkers”, who were of the greatest interest to him – Fyodor Dostoevsky, Lev Tolstoy, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Luther, and Søren Kierkegaard. On the basis of this analysis the character of Shestov’s philosophy is defined. According to Shestov, like his own crisis, the crises that these thinkers experienced occasioned a total transformation of their convictions and values. Šestov does not let his life find complete expression in his philosophy. Instead he projects his crisis into the five thinkers’ crises and philosophy. To characterize the previous and new modes of thinking, the concepts of alienation (degeneration, degradation, depravity) and authenticity (deliverance from alienation) are used. Shestov’s judgment of the consistency of the five thinkers’ new attitudes is presented, i.e. deliverance from the common life with its emphasis on rational eternal truths and moralism. Authentic life is in Shestov’s opinion the from the individual’s everyday life concealed experience of despair in extreme situations. This constitutes a grave crisis that leads to the repudiation of all hitherto held convictions and cherished hopes. The contrast between the Russian philosopher’s personal, (after his crisis) mainly tranquil, harmonious life and his philosophy is glaring. Analyzing the five thinkers, Shestov finds that they did not persevere with their new convictions, instead they complied with the by everybody accepted and everywhere valid truths. Shestov’s “theoretical”, uncompromising and consistent stance on one side and the lack of these characteristics with the aforementioned thinkers on the other side, to a great extent places Shestov in another category than these. In Shestov’s view freedom is in the region of tragedy, which nobody enters on his own will and in the incomprehensible trust in a capricious, “inhuman” God. According to Shestov, only the philosopher, who derives his thinking from a situation, where he experiences extreme despair and hopelessness, can claim to be a true philosopher. / <p>Examinator: docent Julie Hansen; Uppsala universitet</p>

The thesis deals with moral (ethical) education in Czech schools. It tries to extend the current complementary discipline of ethical education by the Konstanz Method of Dilemma- Discussion (hereinafter KMDD) whose objective is to develop moral competence. For this purpose, it follows the tradition of moral education in Czech schools and pays attention to the diversity of the concept of moral education. It introduces the main psychological backgrounds of moral education and also the theories that focus on the "measurement" of morality. The thesis analyses the contemporary Czech concept of ethical education, maps the situation of moral education with respect to our neighbours, and then presents the Konstanz Method of Dilemma-Discussion. Part of the dissertation is its research section in which Czech pupils were subjected to a KMDD examination through research. Keywords: moral education, ethics education, method, concept, tradition, measurement of morality, Konstanz Method of Dilemma Discussion

Human existence (or be-ing) is profoundly relational. Yet educational environments often assume that learning happens individually. Though many educators are trying to rectify this problem by introducing community into the learning process, these efforts are too often simply overlaid onto a system that works through competition and rewards individual achievement. Therefore, an alternative perspective for who we are as humans and how we should be together is needed. In this dissertation, I examine what it means to be fundamentally related and show how such an understanding might impact learning. We often think of “community” as a place, but I also use it to embody an alternative understanding of human be-ing: how we are and should be related and the process by which we can learn to embrace our ethical responsibilities. This second way of understanding community addresses a mode of be-ing that describes how we should come together: with (or “com”) unity. I use religious narratives to explore what a non-modern understanding of relational be-ing might mean for education. Looking at community in a religious context is helpful because it offers a different framework for understanding human be-ing. Using three stories found in Genesis—(a) the Creation of the world including the introduction of Adam and Eve, (b) their Fall, and (c) their Expulsion from Eden—I argue that they reveal the importance of three aspects of community: (a) diversity, a deep appreciation for our and others' enduring individuality, (b) unity, a willingness to be responsible both to and for others in a particular, ethical way, and (c) work, the catalyst for coming together and making relationships purposeful. Understanding how the aspects of diversity, unity, and work strengthen supportive relationships is an important way to understand community, including learning communities. It suggests that the purpose of education should be to help learners realize their moral responsibilities to others and teach them how to respond to that obligation. Moral learning communities can generate experiences that speak more authentically to human be-ing. They enhance education so that learning becomes not only more meaningful but truly life-changing.

The purpose of this investigation was to try to measure the perceived effect of three films upon L. D. S. college student's attitudes toward premarital affection immediately after viewing each film and over a time interval of three to four weeks. The sample consisted of seven health classes (180 males and 195 females in total) in the Department of Health Education at the Brigham Young University. A questionnaire was devised by the investigator and used as the instrument to determine the student's perceived attitudes toward premarital affection.The students evidenced significance change in the conservative direction only after viewing the film "How Do I Love Thee." None of the three films effected attitude change over the time interval of three to four weeks. The favorable response, positive respones, and the perceived contributed information given for each film dropped over the time interval of three to four weeks.

This essay focuses on exploring societal limits regarding sexual relations. It tries to discover where – and possibly why – the line is generally drawn in western society between what is usually seen as morally correct, incorrect, taboo, normal, etcetera. In addition to this, the essay sets out to challenge societal confirmative views on what is regarded as normal versus perverted sex. In order to do this, there will be a focus on what is seen as moral, immoral, natural, and unnatural sex according to a handful of prominent philosophers who are active within the subject, as well as their own thoughts on how someone might think around sexual philosophy. Some things will be disregarded in this paper's discussions, such as rape, as I find that the morality on such a subject is not relevant to this discussion. I make this distinction since there are other moral implications, and complications, than just the sexual aspects of rape. My reasoning for this exclusion is that I wish to only explore what could be regarded as consensual sexual acts, in order to distinguish between what could be genuinely seen as immoral and what could possibly only be regarded as taboo, possibly closer connected too feelings rather than real moral objection. In short, one might say that the answer is not an easy one and that – as is the case in so many societal situations – there can be many ways to draw a line between the morally right and wrong. As to where the line is drawn; this essay will provide some clarity in regard to a few possible answers, such as psychological, social, and individual aspects of the distinction between the perverted, the immoral and the natural in regard to sex and sexuality. The main result shows that the idea of sexual perversion or immoral sexual acts seem to stem from personal – and not always logical or rational – opinion. Furthermore, what is considered right or wrong might not always be based in arguments with consistent moral merit. These results show that every individual might need to keep more of an open mind and turn to reason when making judgement regarding sexual acts or relations, rather than running risk at basing their opinions in pure feeling. / Denna uppsats fokuserar på att utforska samhällets gränser berörande sexuella relationer. Uppsatsen försöker upptäcka var – och möjligen varför – gränsen ofta dras i västvärldens samhällen vad beträffar moraliskt riktigt, fel, tabu och normalt med mera. Utöver detta har uppsatsen som mål att utmana socialt förankrade synsätt kring vad som anses vara normalt kontra perverst sex. För att kunna göra detta kommer fokus att ligga på vad som anses vara moraliskt, omoraliskt, naturligt och onaturligt sex enligt en handfull dominanta filosofer som är aktiva inom subjektet. Dessa filosofers egna tankar och idéer kring hur man kan tänka kring sexualfilosofi kommer också behandlas. Vissa samtalsämnen kommer att uteslutas i uppsatsen, såsom våldtäkt, eftersom jag upplever att sådana akter har ytterligare omoraliska implikationer och komplikationer utöver de sexuella aspekterna. Varför jag gör denna avgränsning är för att jag endast önskar undersöka sådana akter som skulle kunna anses falla under samtycke. Samtycke är relevant eftersom jag genom uppsatsen kommer försöka skilja på sådana akter som genuint skulle kunna anses vara omoraliska och akter som möjligen endast skulle kunna räknas till vad som kallas för tabu; Alltså akter som möjligen förkastas på grund av känsloargument snarare än verklig moralisk utvärdering. I korta är svaret – som det så ofta är i samhällsbaserade frågor – inte enkelt. Det kan finnas många sätt att dra gränser mellan vad som ska räknas som moraliskt riktigt, eller moraliskt fel. Vad beträffar vart gränsen dras kommer denna uppsats tillgodose läsaren med ett antal möjliga svar, såsom psykologiska, sociala och individuella aspekter bakom skillnaden mellan det perversa, omoraliska och naturliga beträffande sex och sexualitet. Det huvudsakliga resultatet visar att idén bakom sexuell perversion, eller sexuellt omoraliska akter, tycks bottna i personliga åsikter – ibland utan bakomliggande logik eller rationalitet. Vidare visar resultaten att vad som anses vara rätt eller fel inte alltid bottnar i moraliskt konsekventa argument. Dessa resultat visar att varje individ kan behöva hålla sig mer öppen och förhålla sig till förnuftet när hen skapar sig åsikter om sex, snarare än att riskera grunda dessa i ren känsla.

The purpose of this review of literature is to investigate the various roles of video surveillance (VS) in the hospital's intensive care unit (ICU) as well as its legal and ethical implications. Today, hospitals spend more money on the ICU than on any other unit. By 2030, the population of those 65 and over is expected to double. 80% of older adults have at least one chronic diseases (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). As a consequence, the demand for ICU services will likely increase, which may burden hospital with additional costs. Because of increasing economic pressures, more hospitals are using video surveillance to enhance quality care and reduce ICU costs (Goran, 2012). Research shows that VS enhances positive outcomes among patients and best practice compliance among hospital staff. The results are fewer reports of patient complications and days spent in the ICU, and an increase in reported hospital savings. In addition, VS is becoming an important tool for the families of newborns in the neonatal ICU (NICU). The belief is that the VS can facilitate parent-baby bonding. In the United States of America, privacy rights impose legal restrictions on VS. These rights come from the U.S. Constitution, Statutory law, Regulatory law, and State law. HIPPA authorizes the patient to control the use and disclosure of his or her health information. Accordingly, hospitals are under obligation to inform patients on their right to protected health information. It is appropriate that hospitals use VS for diagnostic purposes as long as they have obtained patient consent. According to modern day privacy experts Charles Fried and Alan Westin, a violation of a person's privacy equates a violation on their liberty and morality. However, if a physician suspects that a third party person is causing harm to the patient, than the use of covert VS is justifiable.