Stereotype threat is the threat of confirming a negative stereotype about a group with which a person identifies. Researchers have found that stereotype threat can result in underperformance in multiple domains, shifts in social behavior, and shifts in assessed implicit attitudes, the likelihood of which increases as an individual's concern about the domain of interest increases. According to theory, this threat can be "alleviated",thereby diminishing or eliminating its impact. In this project, over the course of two experiments, the impact of stereotype threat and stereotype threat-alleviation on explicit self-report measures are examined. In experiment one, white college student participants were exposed (or not) to an on-line task intended to elicit race-based stereotype threat. Differences in reporting style (i.e., bias) between the two groups on self-reported measures of race-related attitudes were examined. It was hypothesized that the group exposed to stereotype threat would endorse lower racism and lower stereotypicality (i.e., stereotypic "White" behaviors, attitudes, adjectives, and beliefs). The data provided only partial support for the hypothesis - the threat group reported significantly less stereotypicality than the non threat group. However, the groups were not statistically different on measures of racism or race and social policy. In experiment two, again examining white college students who participated on-line, a stereotype threat-alleviation task was added, and whether this diminished or removed bias was examined. It was hypothesized the threat group would endorse lower stereotypicality and racism than the non threat group and the group receiving the threat alleviation task. The findings from study one did not replicate in study two. Instead, contrary to predictions, across measures of racism and stereotypicality, it was the non threat group that consistently showed the lowest scores. Potential explanations for these findings are offered, including the possibility of having eliciting stereotype threat, cognitive dissonance, or both for the threat and non threat groups via their filler task. Finally, implications for assessing, broaching, and reducing stereotype threat in clinical and research applications are also discussed. / Ph. D.

This thesis aimed to explore factors, which players consider when choosing their protagonist's gender and what impact that choice has on gameplay. We used two popular games as reference: “Assassin’s Creed Odyssey“ (Ubisoft Quebec, 2018) and “Baldur's Gate 3” (Larian Studios, 2023). This study was conducted by interviewing participants and sending out surveys among the two games’ communities with a total of 493 participants sharing their answers. The sample group mainly consisted of players from several European countries and the United States of America, with 280 identifying as male, 181 as female, and 32 as non-binary. It was found that the majority of players agreed that visual character customization and gender choice did provide them a greater sense of immersion. Furthermore, the storyline seemed to be a framing factor influencing player choices by offering a setting players carefully considered when designing/choosing their protagonists. These results can be of use to game designers who wish to gain an understanding of players’ gender choices and impacts on their role-playing-game gameplay experience. Additionally, further research is suggested to get a deeper understanding of outlying factors that players might consider when choosing a character.

Though referred to as "non-traditional students", older students have, in fact, become prevalent in university classrooms, and the number of non-traditional students is expected to continue increasing (Bishop-Clark & Lynch, 1993). Yet, stereotypes that students of different ages hold towards each other may interfere with creating an optimal learning environment for all. This study explores age-based stereotypes students may have of each other. Undergraduate students were randomly assigned to review a scenario about a college student who was described as either traditional (20 years old) or non-traditional (40 years). Participants rated the student in the scenario using the Reysen Likeability, Expertise, and Honesty Scales, the Academic Motivation Scale, and a Student Behavior Questionnaire. Both traditional and non-traditional participants rated the traditional student in the scenario as more likeable. All participants rated traditional students higher in traditional-based stereotypes and the non-traditional student higher in the nontraditional based stereotypes. Evidence of the existence and nature of such stereotyping can be a step toward addressing and alleviating tensions within the mixed-age classroom and working towards support and understanding.

本研究以理學院大學數學學科能力測驗成績在7級分以上的女大學生49名作為研究對象，操弄兩種刻板印象：『女性的數學較差』與『理學院的學生數學能力較好』，結合『刻板印象威脅』與『刻板印象提升』的概念，探討一個同時具有正負向刻板印象的當事人，當被激發不同所屬團體認同（性別/科目），對於受試者工作表現、工作選擇與自我能力評估的影響，並驗證考試焦慮與工作記憶容量作為刻板印象效果的中介變項之可能性。 本研究為單因子設計，獨變項『不同認同團體激發』有三組：性別認同組、理學院認同組、控制組。依變項則有8項指標：工作記憶容量測驗分數、數學測驗分數、考試焦慮量表分數、考試焦慮生理測量、數學測驗選擇難度、數學測驗難度評估、自我評估數學能力、刻板印象相信程度。 研究結果發現，當受試者被激發理學院認同時，他們的確會受到刻板印象提升效果的影響，造成工作記憶容量上升，但當受試者被激發性別認同時，他們在工作記憶容量測驗上的表現和控制組的受試者並沒有差異，亦即，刻板印象威脅效果沒有顯現。而接受到不同認同團體激發的受試者，儘管在自陳式考試焦慮量表上並沒有顯現出差異，然而在脈搏測量上則顯現出組間差異。 另外，在『測驗難度選擇』方面，本研究發現理學院認同組的受試者較其他組受試者會選擇較困難的作業。然而，在『數學能力測驗難度評估』、『對自己能力的評估』、『刻板印象的相信程度』這三方面，不同組的受試者則沒有顯現出差異。而本研究所提出的刻板印象效果之中介機制，並未在本實驗中得到支持。最後，研究者除了對上述結果進行討論之外，亦提出本研究的限制以及對未來研究的建議。

<p>Three main theoretical approaches to the study of the causation of prejudice can be distinguished within psychological research. The cognitive approach suggests that prejudice is a function of cognitive processes where stereotypic information about social groups, stored in memory, is automatically activated and affects people’s judgements and behavior toward members of the target group. The personality approach suggests that prejudice is a function of people’s personality characteristics. Finally, the social psychological approach emphasizes people’s group membership and group identification as the as major source of causation.</p><p>Previous research has almost entirely focused on only one approach of causation at a time. The focus has also shifted periodically – with attention paid to one approach at each period of time. The present thesis is an attempt to integrate these approaches and suggests an integrative model where the relative contribution of each approach could be assessed. The underlying assumption is that all three approaches are meaningful and that prejudice is a complex phenomenon that is best explained by taking into account all approaches jointly.</p><p>Examining the cognitive approach, Paper I revealed that people are knowledgeable of the cultural stereotypes and that stereotypic information is automatically activated and affects people’s judgments. Paper II (and Paper III) supported the personality approach and revealed that prejudice is highly related to primary personality characteristics and, in line with a central idea in this approach, different types of prejudice (ethnic prejudice, sexism, homophobia, and prejudice toward disabled people) are highly correlated. The results of Paper III revealed the importance of group membership and group identification, supporting the social psychology approach.</p><p>The findings are discussed in relation to previous research and the necessity to integrate various approaches and disciplines to explain psychological phenomena in general and prejudice in particular. Also, implications of the findings for prejudice prevention are discussed.</p>

Three main theoretical approaches to the study of the causation of prejudice can be distinguished within psychological research. The cognitive approach suggests that prejudice is a function of cognitive processes where stereotypic information about social groups, stored in memory, is automatically activated and affects people’s judgements and behavior toward members of the target group. The personality approach suggests that prejudice is a function of people’s personality characteristics. Finally, the social psychological approach emphasizes people’s group membership and group identification as the as major source of causation. Previous research has almost entirely focused on only one approach of causation at a time. The focus has also shifted periodically – with attention paid to one approach at each period of time. The present thesis is an attempt to integrate these approaches and suggests an integrative model where the relative contribution of each approach could be assessed. The underlying assumption is that all three approaches are meaningful and that prejudice is a complex phenomenon that is best explained by taking into account all approaches jointly. Examining the cognitive approach, Paper I revealed that people are knowledgeable of the cultural stereotypes and that stereotypic information is automatically activated and affects people’s judgments. Paper II (and Paper III) supported the personality approach and revealed that prejudice is highly related to primary personality characteristics and, in line with a central idea in this approach, different types of prejudice (ethnic prejudice, sexism, homophobia, and prejudice toward disabled people) are highly correlated. The results of Paper III revealed the importance of group membership and group identification, supporting the social psychology approach. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research and the necessity to integrate various approaches and disciplines to explain psychological phenomena in general and prejudice in particular. Also, implications of the findings for prejudice prevention are discussed.

刻板印象威脅效果是指當個人在面臨與其能力有關的負向刻板印象時，會有測驗表現不佳的現象，由於國內尚未有刻板印象威脅的相關研究出現，過去相關的刻板印象威脅研究對自我設限策略也少有探究，對於使用自我設限策略後是否讓自己表現不佳的風險更高亦少探討。因此，本研究除了探究個人在威脅情境中的「測驗表現」外，他（她）在情境中的「自我設限策略」之因應行為、及其自我設限策略的使用對測驗表現的影響亦是本研究關注的議題。 本研究為3(刻板印象威脅：威脅組女性、無威脅組女性、威脅組男性)×4(自我設限線索：宣稱組、行為組、宣稱行為組、以及不告知組)的實驗設計。其中，在刻板印象威脅部分，威脅組受試被告知「男性在此測驗中的表現比較好」，無威脅組受試被告知「男、女性的數學表現無差異」。在設限線索部分，宣稱組受試被告知「宣稱性自我設限對測驗表現有負向影響」，行為組受試被告知「行為性自我設限線索對測驗表現有負向影響」，宣稱行為組受試被告知「宣稱性與行為性自我設限皆對測驗表現有負向影響」。主要依變項有三：數學測驗分數、練習題的答題數目（行為性自我設限之指標）、宣稱性自我設限問卷分數（宣稱性自我設限之指標）。研究對象採用國立政治大學的大學女生158名與男生75名。 研究結果發現，不論設限線索的有效與否，處於威脅情境中的女性受試幾乎都比較傾向使用「宣稱性自我設限策略」以進行因應，其測驗表現也較差。另外，在威脅情境中，自尊越低的女性受試越傾向使用「宣稱性自我設限策略」。但不同「刻板印象威脅」組別的受試在測驗表現上無差異，亦即刻板印象威脅效果的現象並未在本研究獲得驗證，而各組在「行為性自我設限」的使用上亦無顯著差異。最後，研究者針對上述結果進行討論，並對本研究的限制與對未來研究的建議提出說明。

本研究目的在於探討與女性領導者有關的刻板印象與偏見是否會產生刻板印象威脅效果而影響女性的領導表現，以及是否可以消除或減少它對於個人表現的影響。本研究也探討「對特定領域的認同」及「對所屬團體的認同」在女性領導能力的範疇中，是否會使得刻板印象威脅對於個人表現有不同程度的影響效果。另外，本研究為了要更加確認威脅感的產生，故增加行為觀察的方式來測量焦慮的產生，以彌補自陳焦慮方法的不足。 本研究以60位國立政治大學女學生為研究對象，隨機分派至「激發刻板印象威脅」、「不激發刻板印象威脅」、及「減除刻板印象威脅」等三個情境。每位女性受試者另搭配一男一女成為一小組，每組由此位女性受試者擔任領導者，帶領小組討論並解決一新車分配問題。女性受試者的領導表現由自己、小組中的二位成員、以及不知道本研究目的與假設的評估者來予以衡量。另外，本研究除了由受試者及小組成員以情境焦慮量表來評估受試者的焦慮程度之外，也請不知道本研究目的與假設的評估者，以情境焦慮量表來評估受試者的焦慮程度，並觀察其焦慮行為，評量受試者在活動過程中顯出不舒服或不自然的程度及頻率。 研究結果顯示，「激發刻板印象威脅」情境與「不激發刻板印象威脅」情境的受試者在大部分領導表現變項上均無顯著差異；「激發刻板印象威脅」情境中的受試者在部分領導表現變項上的平均得分顯著低於「減除刻板印象威脅」情境中的受試者。在本研究中，性別認同程度及領域認同程度並不會影響刻板印象威脅與領導表現之間的關係。此外，三個實驗情境中受試者的情境焦慮程度及非語言焦慮並沒有顯著差異。 本文也針對研究結果進行整體性的討論，並提出可能的研究限制，及對於後續研究的建議。

Women in leadership positions may experience stereotype threat when explicitly or implicitly reminded of gender and leader stereotypes. Increased worry about potentially confirming the stereotype should affect their behavior and perceptions in leadership situations. I used a 3 (article) x 2 (confederate gender) between-participants design. Female participants read an article that either made stereotypes explicit (explicit threat), countered stereotypes (threat nullification), or did not include stereotype-relevant information (implicit threat) and were assigned to lead a male or female confederate through the construction of a Lego model. I hypothesized that women in the implicit threat conditions (implicit article; male confederate) would objectively and subjectively perform worse than women in the explicit and nullification article conditions and those working with a female confederate. Women should experience the situation more negatively in conditions of threat (explicit and implicit articles; male confederate). Confederate perceptions of the participants should be more negative, except competence, when participants performed well (explicit and nullification article; female confederate). Results partially supported the hypotheses. Women who led men objectively performed worse, perceived their own performance as worse, were perceived as less competent and overall less favorably by their employees, and experienced the situation more negatively than women who led women. The article had little impact on participants and outcomes. The findings suggest that female leaders may be unintentionally undermining themselves when stereotype reminders are present, such as when asked to lead a man in a masculine task. Experiencing stereotype threat may influence women to opt out of leadership due to their negative experiences and they may not earn promotions due to poor performance and coworkers’ negative perceptions of their behavior.

The number of single-parent families has increased dramatically in the world. In South Africa, this increase has partly been due to the increased number of deaths as a result of the AIDS pandemic. The purpose of this study is to explore experiences of widowers as single parents. The study proposes to elevate the view of single-parent families, which classes them as stereotypes of victimization, to where such families come to represent responsible archetypes. Unstructured in-depth interviews were used to obtain data from two Black and two White widowed single fathers. Thematic content analysis was utilized to identify emerging themes from the fathers' stories. Fathers in this study challenged the deficit model's view of single parenting which claims that these families are broken. As far as its applicability is concerned, this study may be beneficial to psychotherapists, single parents and society as a whole. / Psychology / M.A.(Clinical Psychology)