本篇論文的目的在於討論兒童在漢語母子對話中修護行為(repair behavior)的情況，研究問題如下：1.兒童修護形態(repair types)的表現狀況2.兒童修護行為在語言形式、語用功能的習得是否隨年紀增加而呈現發展變化3.母親的語言形式、語用功能隨著兒童年紀增加有何改變。研究對象是六位兒童與他們的母親，年紀介於三歲至五歲。研究結果顯示，語言型態的使用隨年紀增加而有所不同，年幼孩子相較於年長孩子更依賴母親來開啟修護句型。並且，結顯示，三歲組採用 Lexical 語言形式的修復，另一方面年長孩子運用Syntactic Editing terms來執行修護行為。最後，母子對話的互動過程可以幫助孩子習得運用更成熟的修護技巧，年紀越大的小孩越能掌握以多樣的語言型式來達成多樣的語用功能。而這些不同可能是孩子的語言學習能力、記憶廣度、及認知能力所導致。 / The use of repair strategies has been pointed out as important characteristics for children to develop mature conversation skills. This thesis aims to investigate how children acquire repair in the interaction with their mothers. Six dyads in three age groups from three to five year olds are investigated. There are three research questions proposed: first, what patterns of repair are used by Mandarin-speaking three-year-old, four-year-old, and five-year-old children? Second, is there a developmental change in children’s repair types, linguistic forms, and pragmatic functions in conversation? Finally, how would mothers’ repair linguistic forms and pragmatic functions change with children’s age? Each repair utterance in the repair sequence of children and their mothers was analyzed in term of: (1) Repair types: SISR, OISR, SIOR, and OIOR (Schegloff, 1992). (2) Linguistic forms: nonverbal, lexical, syntactic, editing term (Ke, 2005), and combination. (3) Pragmatic functions: emphasis, specification, confirmation, elaboration, and floor-holding (Garvey, 1984; Chang, 1998; Wei, 2003). The result showed that younger children contributed relatively higher percentages of OIOR than older children. In contrast, older children contributed relatively higher percentages of SISR than younger children. It appeared that trend of the provision of guidance by mothers may decrease as children’s ability to repair developed with age. Second, it appeared that the influence between the children and the mothers is mutual in the course of interaction. In other words, children’s maturity of repair ability influences how the mothers interact with the children. Moreover, the findings display children’s discrepancy in language development around three years old. It is observed that three-year-old group adopts Lexical of linguistic forms to repair. On the other hand, older children used Syntactic and Editing term of linguistic forms to repair. Finally, the interaction of linguistic forms and pragmatic function displayed that both mothers and the children in all age groups use more Specification than other categories. It appears that in mother-child interaction, both parties tend to apply repair to specify the other’s intention. The result also indicates that older children appear to use repair to display their involvement in the conversation for an even large variety of pragmatic functions.

本篇論文目的在探討兒童在親子對話中行使拒絕行為的表現，研究問題如下： 1. 兒童採用哪些拒絕策略來達到拒絕的目的？2.從這些拒絕策略中，可以反映出哪些語用發展？研究的語料來自於一名以漢語為母語的小男生與他母親之間的日常對話，共擷取三個時間點的語料作為分析語用發展所用。分析結果顯示，隨著年紀越大，受試兒童在拒絕策略的數量上以及委婉度上都有明顯增加。此外，我們也發現到，隨著年紀增長，受試兒童漸漸的能跳脫自己觀點，而從別人角度出發來做拒絕回應。此外，母親行使請求的方式也影響了受試兒童的拒絕表現，當母親的請求較強勢時，受試孩童會傾向用較有技巧的方式來回應。此外，母親行使請求行為的方式也會根據受試兒童的年紀不同而有所差異。 / This study aims to investigate the children’s refusal performance from a developmental perspective and how the mother’s requests affect children’s refusal strategies. We analyzed a Mandarin-speaking child’s natural conversation with his mother. The data were collected from three time points, that is 2; 7, 3; 1 and 3; 7. The refusal strategies adopted in the present study are mainly based on Wang (2001)’s categorization. After the careful examination, it is observed that the refusal strategies increased with the age. The child decreased his reliance on the most direct way to refuse. In addition, the data also showed the child’s growing ability to take his interlocutor’s perspective into account, which is consistent with previous studies about children’s pragmatic development. The child also applied his knowledge of a sincere request when making refusals. As for the effect of the mother’s request, it is observed that the force of the mother’s request could be perceived by the child and influenced the way the child refused. When the mother’s requests were imposed, the child would apply more skill strategies to respond. Also, the child would combine refusal strategies to respond when facing more complicated request.

本研究旨在探討孩童在同儕對話中所使用的拒絕策略，以及說話者及聽者的性別對於拒絕策略選擇之影響。研究語料來自兩人或三人一組的孩童在玩耍時的對話，孩童的年紀在四歲七個月到五歲十個月之間。本研究主要採用Beebe等人所提供的拒絕策略分類，研究結果發現，孩童在同儕對話中使用較多的間接拒絕策略(70%)，這也顯示出孩童避免與同儕產生正面衝突，並且努力維護彼此間的友誼。在所有策略中，孩童最常使用的是簡單否定(simple negation: 31.8%)以及提供理由(reason: 26.7%)；此外，在這個年紀的孩童在一次拒絕中，大多只使用一種拒絕策略。 而在性別的影響方面，則發現在同性別的互動中，女生比男生使用了更多的直接拒絕策略；此外，與在同性別互動中的表現相比，女生在不同性別的互動中變得更直接，而男生則變得較委婉。研究也發現，孩童會根據不同性別選擇特定的拒絕策略，例如，男生較常對女生使用非語言性的迴避策略(nonverbal avoidance)。本研究中討論了造成此現象可能的原因，像是中國文化中女人的角色、家長對不同性別孩童的教育方式，和不同性別的孩童之間友誼的強弱等等。總而言之，研究發現不論是說話者的性別或者聽者的性別都會對拒絕策略的選擇造成一定的影響。 / This study aims to explore children’s refusal performance in peer talk and how speakers’ and interlocutors’ genders influence their choice of refusal strategies. The natural conversations produced by dyads of triads of children aged from 4;7 to 5;10 were used for analysis. The refusal strategies adopted in this study are mainly based on Beebe et al. (1990)’s category. The results showed that children applied much more indirect refusal strategies (70%) than direct ones (30%) when refusing their peers, which indicates that they tried to avoid confrontation and make efforts to maintain their friendship. Among the strategies, children tended to employ simple negation (31.8%) and reason (26.7%) most frequently. In addition, children at this age applied only one refusal strategy in a refusal most of the time. As for the influence of gender, it is observed that in same-gender interactions, girls used more direct strategies than boys. In addition, in cross-gender interactions, girls became more direct while boys were more indirect than in same-gender interaction. Moreover, children tended to choose certain strategy when refusing others of different gender; for example, boys used a lot more nonverbal avoidance when refusing girls than boys. Possible reasons such as women’s role in Chinese culture, children’s intensity of friendship between different gender, and parent’s educational style were discussed in the study in order to explain the gender differences. The findings, therefore, suggest that both speakers’ and interlocutors’ genders play an important role in children’s choice of refusal strategies.

本研究的目的為瞭解母子對話中的打斷現象，分析的語料來自於兩對以漢語為母語的母子對話，兩位小孩皆為三歲。首先，為瞭解母親與小孩打斷句之本質，我們採用Goldberg (1990:891)的分類來做判斷，結果顯示兩者在對談中皆大多使用rapport-oriented interruptions，代表在母子對話中，兩方傾向在打斷句中表達對對方話語的興趣與投入，並且藉由著打斷一同建立談話主題。再者，小孩的打斷句更進一步的用Dunn and Shatz’s (1989)的研究方法來分析其與對話言談的語意關連，結果發現小孩的打斷句多數都包含了與之前相關並且新的訊息，而這類的打斷句是最有可能得到母親的注意並且回應。 / The purpose of this study is to investigate the nature and function of mother-to-child and child-to-mother interruptions in conversation. The data analyzed are natural conversations from two Mandarin-speaking mother-child dyads. The children are about three years old. Goldberg’s (1990:891) categorization of interruptions is adopted to examine the nature of the mothers’ and children’s interruptions. The results show that both the mothers and the children use more rapport-oriented interruptions than other types of interruptions, which indicates that in mother-child interaction, both parties tend to use interruptions to signal their involvement and interest and to construct a shared topic cooperatively. In addition, the children’s interruptions are further examined based on Dunn and Shatz’s (1989) framework in order to investigate the semantic relations between the children’s interruptions and the conversational discourse. The findings show that most of the children’s interruptions contain relevant new information. Such interruptions are likely to succeed in getting the attention and response from the mothers.

在學校教育中，來自低社會地位家庭的孩童常在學業成就方面表現不佳，這個現象可能導因於孩童學前所受的語言刺激不足。許多學者發現，母親在親子共讀時若是使用較困難的語言、或是要求幼兒多多參與互動，可以幫助幼兒的語言發展。但是大多數此類研究都是研究西方文化中的親子互動模式，少有在臺灣的文化環境下以真實親子共讀的語料所做的類似研究。本研究的目的在於探討臺灣不同社會階層親子共讀的模式，研究對象包括三十二對母親與三歲幼兒，其中十六對來自中高社階家庭，十六對來自低收入家庭。語料來自於受試親子共同閱讀故事書時的語言以及互動。研究結果顯示中高社階的母親較會在閱讀的過程中鼓勵幼兒參與對話，也會和幼兒討論與故事內容相關的議題。而低社階的母親把閱讀故事視為自己的責任，較不會誘導幼兒參與互動，也只專注在故事書上現時現地的內容，少有相關議題的討論。此研究結果可作為親職教育或介入計畫的基礎。 / Children from low socio-economic status (SES) are at higher risk of poor school achievement. The reason might be the language background of low SES children in preschool years. Researchers have found that mothers who give children higher demand in joint book reading tend to have children with better language skills in the future. However, most of these researches were conducted in Western cultures. This paper examined mother-child book reading styles in different socio-economic classes in Taiwan. 32 mother-child dyads, 16 from upper-middle class and 16 from low income families, were asked to read a picture book with their children. Results showed that upper-middle mothers tended to encourage their children to narrate the story and discuss non-immediate information such as inference and prediction of plot elements. In contrast, low mothers tended to take story book reading as their responsibility without inviting children to participate and they produced more immediate talk such as labeling. Educational implications and suggestions for the future research will be discussed.

本研究旨在探討母語為英語之外籍學生華語時間表述方位詞之第二語言習得，藉由實證研究發現結果，瞭解外籍學生之時間表述方位詞習得順序，進而歸納出所可能出現之偏誤及其他影響因素。其主要研究議題包括「時間表述方位詞之習得順序」、「母語對外籍學生習得之影響」、「不同程度學習者可能出現之偏誤類型」、「習得發展之趨勢」、「理解層面與應用層面之差異」。本研究採取質性研究方法，以六個月時間觀察外籍學生之第二語言習得。研究對象主要為三名來自初級、中級及中高級之英美學生，每個月進行一次測驗，共計六次。測驗題型含兩大類：「文法選擇」及「看圖說故事」。 　　研究結果顯示，對母語為英語之外籍學生而言，「上下類」表時結構較「前後類」表時結構容易習得，因其母語並無「上下類」相應用法，導致出現偏誤次數較「前後類」來得低。而分析四個方位詞時，亦發現「下＞後＞上＞前」之順序，說明了對母語為英語之外籍學生而言，表「未來」概念之方位詞較為容易掌握。其次，外籍學生易出現之偏誤類型可分為「錯序」、「誤代」、「誤加」、「遺漏」四大類，其中，初級程度出現偏誤以「誤代」為主，中級程度則是以「誤加」出現次數較多，而中高級程度雖是以「誤代」為主，但出現次數明顯降低許多。第三，由測驗結果可看出，外籍學生在理解及應用層面之發展不一，學生在理解層面掌握較快，應用層面則是相對較晚。 　　本研究同時依據實證結果提供教學活動設計，並提出相關教學建議，以作為日後教師教學時之參考。 / The purpose of the thesis is to conduct a qualitative study to investigate the L2 acquisition of spatial words in Chinese time expressions by English-speaking learners. The major issues addressed include: the acquisition of Chinese spatial words, L1 transfer, L2 error types, L2 learners’ developmental sequences, and differences between comprehension and production. Three subjects were selected from different proficiency levels: beginning, low intermediate, and intermediate. Each subject was observed and assessed monthly for six months. A comprehension task (i.e. a grammatical judgment task) and a production task (i.e. a picture-cue description task) were employed to examine the subjects’ L2 acquisition of Chinese time expressions and their responses were compared with the findings obtained from 12 native controls. The overall results are as follows: First, for English-speaking learners, the shang-xia ‘up-down’ type of time expressions was easier than qian-hou ‘before-after’ type. This is because there are no corresponding “up-down” expressions in the subjects’ mother tongue. Moreover, a hierarchical sequence of L2 time expressions was found: xia ‘down’> hou ‘after’> shang ‘up’> qian ‘before,’ implying that future time expressions were less challenging than past time expressions. Second, it was found the subjects’ common errors included “wrong omission,” “wrong addition,” “wrong substitution,” and “wrong word order.” The beginning and low-intermediate L2 learners’ major errors were of the “wrong substitution” type, but the intermediate L2 learner’s error was of the “wrong substitution” type. Third, there was a significant difference between the subjects’ comprehension and production. The subjects performed better on the grammaticality judgment task than on the picture description task. Finally, given the developmental order found in the present study, a lesson plan is designed for teaching Chinese time expressions to foreign students in the L2 Chinese classroom.

本篇論文主要研究漢語兒童的否定表達，與其性別對否定表達方式之影響。使用的語料來自四位平均年齡五歲一個月的兒童，在家中與母親的日常對話。參與研究的兒童共使用八種語用策略與其組合，來對他們的母親表達七種否定。分析語料後顯示，此年齡層的兒童表達方式與成人不同，他們偏好使用單一策略做否定。此外，有別於同儕互動中主要使用間接否定來維持友誼，兒童對母親表達否定時較為直接。而他們的間接否定策略，大多出現在可能危及聽者面子的拒絕（Rejection）與否認（Denial）這兩者，也較常出現在表達自己能力與知識上的不足時（Inability & Epistemic negation）。在性別對否定表達的影響方面，女生在否定時有注重關係的傾向（care orientation）。她們拒絕或否認她們母親的次數比男生少，表達拒絕或否認時，也比男生使用更多間接策略與提供較容易理解的原因。在其他的否定語意方面，女生比男生更常表達自己在能力或知識上的不足，此外也更常述說物品的不復存在（Nonexistence）。本研究提供了漢語兒童在否定表達上的結果，也為兒童性別對否定表達的影響提供說明與證據。 / The study investigates children’s expression of negation, and how each gender expresses it to their mother. We observed 4 Mandarin-speaking children of age 5 (mean age= 5; 1) when they were having natural conversation with their mother at home. We found that children used 8 pragmatic strategies (account, nonverbal, correction, temporizing, challenge, countering move, partial agreement, and appealing) to express 7 negation meanings (Nonexistence, Non-occurrence, prohibition, rejection, denial, inability, and epistemic negation). The results showed that children preferred to use single strategy to negate, unlike adults. In contrast with peer interaction in which children preferred to use indirect strategy to maintain their friendship, the amount of direct strategy and indirect strategy were quite even in our data. Their indirect strategies tended to appear in negation meanings that are potentially face-threatening (rejection and denial) or reveal their own insufficiency (inability and epistemic negation). They also inclined to use a combination of strategies to deliver rejection, denial, and prohibition. When we further examine negation in boys and girls, we observe ‘care orientation’ in girls’ negation. They denied and rejected their mother less than boys did, mainly using indirect negation or understandable accounts while boys did the opposite. As for other negation meanings, girls revealed one’s insufficiency (Inability and Epistemic negation) and reported nonexistence of entities (Nonexistence) more often than boys did. The findings provide Mandarin children’s results and evidence of the expression of negation in mother-child interaction, and suggest gender does affect how boys and girls deliver various negation meanings.

本篇論文的目的在於探討兒童在親子對話中行使重新請求 (request reformulation) 的情況，研究問題如下: 1.兒童採取哪些重新請求的策略以達到請求的目的? 2.親子對話中，常見的重新請求的序列模式（patterns of request reformulation sequences）為何？ 2.如何從兒童重新請求的使用反映出角色取代能力 (perspective-taking ability )的發展? 研究對象為一位三歲和一位六歲的男孩。研究結果顯示隨著年紀的增長，兒童能使用更多元的重新請求策略。研究也發現造成請求失敗的原因隨著不同年齡的兒童有所差異。隨著年紀的增長，兒童面臨的失敗原因和挑戰日漸複雜、困難，兒童會依據不同的失敗原因採取重新請求的策略。最後，研究顯示不同年齡兒童採取的重新請求策略可以展現出他們不同階段的角色取代能力的發展。三歲的兒童無法跳脫自己的觀點而從別人的角度來看待自己的請求，所以重新請求著重於強調自己的需求。六歲的兒童較能夠從別人的立場看待自己的請求，所以他較有能力在考量對方的觀點和利益之後採用對雙方有益的策略。 / The purpose of this study is to explore how children at different age make reformulation to compensate for an unsuccessful request. Firstly, we aim to investigate what reformulation strategies children apply and the patterns of reformulation sequences. Second, we further aim to explore how children’s use of reformulation strategies reveals the development of perspective-taking ability. The data analyzed are natural conversations of two Mandarin-speaking mother-child dyads. Subjects in this present study are two male children. One subject is three years and six months old and the other is six years old. The strategies of request reformulation adopted in this study are mainly based on Levin and Rubin’s (1984) categorization. The results show that children would have a greater variety of reformulation strategies as they get older. Furthermore, aggravation and explanation are both children’s main strategies of reformulation. With the growth of age, children decrease the use of aggravation and increase the use of bargain and mitigation. Furthermore, the results of reformulation sequences reveal that the two children are confronted with different causes of the failure to obtain compliance, which influences their adoption of reformulation strategies. The younger child faced the communicative breakdown and his mother’s ignorance while the older child encountered his mother’s queries and disagreements. Finally, the two children’s application of reformulation strategies revealed their different ability to take the other’s perspectives. The younger child’s reliance on aggravation and speaker-oriented negotiation reveals that he is embedded in his own viewpoints and is less able to view his request from the hearer’s viewpoints while the older child is more able to view the request from the hearer’ perspective and take her benefits into account. Our findings throw some light on children’s use of request reformulation strategy and the development of the perspective-taking ability.

本研究旨在探討漢語母子對話中孩童問句的語言形式和語用功能，以及其問句和母親回應之間的關係。研究語料來自於一對以漢語為母語的母子在日常生活的對話，孩童的年紀約為二至三歲。研究將孩童問句的語用功能分為四類：詢問訊息(informational)、請求行為(directive)、對話修補(conversational)以及針對自我(self-directed)。母親針對孩童問句所作的回應分為三類：直接回應(answers)、非直接回應(non-answer responses)與無回應(no answers)。研究發現漢語孩童大量依賴疑問詞問句和語助詞問句，而隨著年紀增長，孩童的問句語言形式也更趨多元。研究也發現孩童多使用問句來詢問訊息，而孩童使用問句執行對話修補功能的比例也隨著年紀增長而有所增加，另外，執行此項功能的問句的語言形式也隨年紀增長而越加豐富。最後，研究發現孩童問句多伴隨母親的回應，而母親的回應有時會重複孩童問句或以問句形式出現鼓勵孩童參與對話。 / The study aims to investigate forms and functions the child’s questions and their relations to the mother’s responses in Mandarin mother-child conversations. The data examined are from one mother-child dyad. The child is around two and three years old. The pragmatic functions of the child’s questions are categorized into four types: informational, directive, conversational and self-directed. The mother’s responses to the child’s questions are categorized into three types: answers, non-answer responses and no answers. The results show that the child mostly uses wh-questions and sentence-final particle questions. As the child grows older, the question forms he uses become more various. In addition, the child uses questions mainly to ask for factual knowledge. The child’s questions which repair the breakdown of the conversation are significant as the child grows older. The result suggests that the child gradually becomes a skillful conversationalist. Last, the data reveals that the child’s questions are mostly followed by the mother’s responses, and the mother’s responses may be related to the pragmatic functions of the child’s questions. The mother’s responses also exhibit some characteristics in child-directed speech in order to encourage the child’s participation in verbal interactions.

本篇論文針對三位以臺灣華語為母語的音韻異常兒童，採長期觀察的方式，研究中文顎音[tɕ, tɕʰ, ɕ]的習得狀況與產製現象。習得狀況方面，詳細描述顎音的習得順序、常見的語音錯誤之音韻歷程、延遲的音韻歷程類型、錯誤取代模式隨著年紀增長而改變的情形。產製現象方面，本篇論文探討了顎音所在音節的音節複雜度(Syllable complexity)是否會對顎音的正確率以及錯誤取代狀況有所影響。 本研究共觀察三位年齡為三歲十個月至五歲三個月且正在接受語言治療的音韻異常兒童長達六個月，以每週一次的頻率前往醫院收集幼童與語言治療師之間的自然對話，並利用錄製回來的影音檔做譯寫和分析。 結果顯示，音韻異常兒童的顎音習得狀況有以下現象：(1)顎音發展較為停滯，幾乎沒有隨著年齡的增長而有進步的現象。(2)音韻異常兒童在發顎音時，會系統性的使用不該是他的年齡所應該出現的音韻歷程。(3)顎音的語音錯誤之音韻歷程種類不多，但使用的頻率卻非常頻繁。上述結果皆驗證了前人文獻的研究結果(Stoel-Gammon & Dunn, 1985; Jeng, 2011)。除此之外，本研究也發現音韻異常兒童具有以下特徵：(4)音韻異常兒童能夠察覺兩個音之間送氣特徵(aspiration feature)的不同，在選擇替代音時，也會選擇與目標音有相同送氣特徵的音來取代。(5)音韻異常兒童的語言能力和語言表現之間有落差，也就是說，他們知道能夠區辨出哪個是正確的音，但卻無法正確的使用該語音。(6)音節複雜度會對音韻異常兒童的顎音產製造成影響。因此，音韻異常兒童在顎音的習得狀況和產製表現上都和正常兒童不同。 音韻異常兒童使用的錯誤音的模式顯示塞擦音基底形式中的[stop]成分及[cont]成分並非均等(asymmetrical relationship)，且塞擦音是屬於以左邊的成分為主要核心的語音(left-headed)，並從第一語言習得的觀點為塞擦音的真實面貌提供了一項證據。 / The purpose of this study is to discuss the issue concerning the acquisition and production of Mandarin palatals [tɕ, tɕʰ, ɕ] in Taiwan Mandarin-speaking disordered children. Four aspects regarding the acquisition of Mandarin palatals are included in this study: the order of acquisition, the phonological processes involved, the delayed phonological processes, and the path of error patterns. In addition, the effect of syllable complexity on disordered children’s palatal production is also examined. Three disordered children (aged 3;10 to 5;3) who were identified as having delayed phonological development are investigated in this study. A six-to-seven month of longitudinal observation is conducted by recording the spontaneous speech between the therapists and the children during the process of speech therapy. The results showed that phonologically disordered children have the following characteristics on palatal acquisition and production: (1) static phonemic system that stops at an early level of development, (2) persistent uses of delayed processes, and (3) frequent uses of phonological processes. These characteristics were asserted in the literature (Stoel-Gammon & Dunn, 1985; Jeng, 2011) and have been proved in this study. In addition, we found that disordered children are unconsciously able to notice the aspiration feature of two sounds, and will use an error sound that has an identical aspiration feature with the target. Moreover, the disparity between the linguistic competence and the linguistic performance in the disordered children was also found. Last, syllable complexity has found to affect disordered children’s palatal production. The substitution errors used by the disordered children support Schafer’s (1995) study, in which he claimed that the underlying representation of affricates is left-headed. To sum up, this study has provided a piece of evidence for the unsolved issue of the nature of affricates from the field of first language acquisition, and might serve as a reference for parents and speech therapists for understanding palatal acquisition and production in disordered children.