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L’objet de la présente étude est le développement, l’application et la diffusion de la technologie associée à divers types d’alliages de cuivre, en particulier l’alliage du plomb-bronze, en Grèce ancienne, dans ses colonies, ainsi qu’en Étrurie. Le plomb-bronze est un mélange de diverses proportions d’étain, de cuivre et de plomb. Le consensus général chez les archéométallurgistes est que le plomb-bronze n’était pas communément utilisé en Grèce avant la période hellénistique; par conséquent, cet alliage a reçu très peu d’attention dans les documents d’archéologie. Cependant, les analyses métallographiques ont prouvé que les objets composés de plomb ajouté au bronze ont connu une distribution étendue. Ces analyses ont aussi permis de différencier la composition des alliages utilisés dans la fabrication de divers types de bronzes, une preuve tangible que les métallurgistes faisaient la distinction entre les propriétés du bronze d’étain et celles du plomb-bronze. La connaissance de leurs différentes caractéristiques de travail permettait aux travailleurs du bronze de choisir, dans bien des cas, l’alliage approprié pour une utilisation particulière. L’influence des pratiques métallurgiques du Proche-Orient a produit des variations tant dans les formes artistiques que dans les compositions des alliages de bronze grecs durant les périodes géométrique tardive et orientalisante. L’utilisation du plomb-bronze dans des types particuliers d’objets coulés montre une tendance à la hausse à partir de la période orientalisante, culminant dans la période hellénistique tardive, lorsque le bronze à teneur élevée en plomb est devenu un alliage commun. La présente étude analyse les données métallographiques de la catégorie des objets coulés en bronze et en plomb-bronze. Elle démontre que, bien que l’utilisation du plomb-bronze n’était pas aussi commune que celle du bronze d’étain, il s’agissait néanmoins d’un mélange important d’anciennes pratiques métallurgiques. Les ères couvertes sont comprises entre les périodes géométrique et hellénistique. / The subject of this study is the development, application and diffusion of the technology of various types of copper alloys, particularly that of leaded bronze, in ancient Greece, its colonies, and in Etruria. Leaded bronze is a mixture of tin, copper and lead in various proportions. The general consensus among archaeometallurgists is that leaded bronze was not commonly used in Greece until the Hellenistic period, and thus this alloy has not received very much attention in archaeological literature. However, metallographic analyses demonstrate that objects composed of leaded bronze had a wide distribution. The analyses also show differentiation in the composition of alloys that were used in the manufacture of various types of bronzes, a tangible indication that metalworkers distinguished between the properties of both tin bronze and leaded bronze. The knowledge of their different working characteristics is what enabled a bronzeworker to choose, in many cases, the appropriate alloy for a specific application. The influence of Near Eastern metallurgical practices produced variations in both the artistic forms as well as alloy compositions of Greek bronzes during the Late Geometric and Orientalizing periods. The use of leaded bronze for particular types of cast objects shows an increasing tendency from the Orientalizing period onwards, culminating in the late Hellenistic period when high-lead bronze became a common alloy. This study analyzes the metallographic data of specific categories of bronze and leaded bronze cast objects, and it will demonstrate that although the use of leaded bronze was not as prevalent as that of tin bronze, it was nevertheless a significant adjunct of ancient metallurgical practices. The periods surveyed range from the Geometric to the Hellenistic periods.

The thin films of oxide xerogels and bronzes and molecular oxide xerogels and bronzes of vanadium compounds were synthesized by sol-gel technology method. The chemical composition of mentioned compounds was investigated using XPS method in order to determine the valence of metal ions. It is shown that it is possible to produce the thin films of vanadium oxide bronzes using simple methods. The possibility to use vanadium-ammonium oxide hydrated compounds as materials for producing the ammonium sensors is shown in the dissertation. / Šiame darbe panaudojant zolis-gelis technologiją, susintetinti vanadžio junginių oksidinių kserogelių ir bronzos bei molekulinių oksidinių kserogelių ir bronzų plonieji sluoksniai. Visų minėtų medžiagų cheminė sudėtis ištirta Rentgeno fotoelektronų spektroskopijos metodu, siekiant nustatyti metalų jonų valentines būsenas. Panaudojant zolis-gelis technologiją, galima gana paprastais metodais, nenaudojant sudėtingos technologinės įrangos, gaminti vanadžio oksidinių bronzų plonuosius sluoksnius. Vanadžio amonio hidratuoti oksidiniai junginiai gali būti naudojami kaip medžiagos amoniako dujų jutikliams gaminti.

In this thesis settlement areas and settlements from the Bronze Age on Gotland are in focus. The island of Gotland in the middle of the Baltic Sea is famous for its rich archaeological remains of monuments and relics from all pre-historic periods, and the Bronze Age (1700-500 BC) especially is well repre- sented. There are nearly a thousand cairns, over 300 stone-ship settings and a large amount of bronze finds, but there are few traits of contemporary settlements. With few exceptions the settlements from all pre-historic periods are in one way “invisible” but during the last decades the context has changed, as has knowledge of the settlements from the Bronze Age. Research published throughout the first ten years of the 21th century offers new and refreshing interpretations concerning settlements and houses from the period in question on both a regional level and in more comprehensive studies across Scandinavia. This is due to continued advances in archaeological methods to see the invisible remains however many of the sites are discovered in exploitation-excavations. In a smaller scale this is also true for Gotland and during the last decade there are scattered finds of houses from the period in the shape of post-holes, hearths and cooking pits. The situation on the island is not to expect larger ex- ploitations followed by excavations so we have to test other ways to look for the settlement areas and settlements. In this study I therefor examine if there are any relations to the visible, in first hand cont- emporary types of monuments such as burnt mounds, cairns, stone ship settings and finds of bronzes, to sites seen as possible settlement areas from the Bronze Age. In this context I also have to consider the remains from the early Iron Age, foremost the visible remains of fossilised fields and ancient forts. The theoretical framework is a hermeneutic approach in the study of the relations of each cont- emporary types of monuments contextualized with possible settlements. As Gotland is an island I have to relate to the meaning of landscape and islands. To get closer to the society and the social orga- nisation, my aim is also to come closer to the people who lived their daily lives on Gotland during the Bronze Age and to consider the question of the chiefdoms and the social organisation.

Les mécanismes de formation et de croissance des films d'oxydes à la surface des bronzes Cu-Sn sont encore peu connus. Dans ce contexte, cette étude a pour objectif de lever l'ambiguïté concernant la nature, la structure et la localisation des produits de corrosion formés à la surface des bronzes. Pour cela des électrodes de bronze ont été élaborées, mises en forme, puis oxydées par immersion et par polarisation anodique en milieu sulfate à 10 2 mol.L-1. Les espèces ainsi formées en surface sont ensuite réduites en mode galvanostatique. Les courbes font apparaître des paliers caractéristiques des réactions électroniques qui opèrent à l'électrode. Les valeurs de potentiel correspondant aux différents paliers sont comparées à celles obtenues sur des composés modèles. Cette étude comparative permet d'attribuer certains paliers à certains composés mais pas tous.Pour compléter l'identification, la diffraction des rayons X, la spectroscopie Mössbauer et la micro-spectrométrie Raman ont été mises en œuvre afin d'observer la présence d'oxyde d'étain (+ IV) en plus des composés du cuivre. La spectroscopie d'électrons Auger et la spectroscopie de photoélectrons X (XPS-AES) ont permis une analyse en profondeur des films par érosion progressive de la surface, qui a révélé qu'en premier lieu un film d'oxyde d'étain se forme à la surface de l'alliage Cu-Sn et, qu'ensuite, une couche d'oxyde de cuivre croit à l'interface oxyde/électrolyte. Les observations effectuées par microscopie électronique en transmission (MET) confirment ces résultats. Dans un second temps, les techniques électrochimiques conventionnelles, et plus particulièrement la spectroscopie d'impédance électrochimique, ont été utilisées afin d'identifier la structure des couches ainsi que les processus mis en jeu lors de l'oxydation. Elles ont permis d'en déduire un mécanisme réactionnel d'oxydation possible

A log-coffin excavated in the early nineteenth century proved to be well enough preserved in the early twenty-first century for the full armoury of modern scientific investigation to give its occupants and contents new identity, new origins and a new date. In many ways the interpretation is much the same as before: a local big man buried looking out to sea. Modern analytical techniques can create a person more real, more human and more securely anchored in history. This research team shows how.

This thesis argues that the bird depicted in art found in funerary contexts of the Greek Bronze Age is a representation of the soul released from the body. This conclusion was reached by tracing the origins of the avian qualities of the winged psyche present in Classical funerary art. The soul begins as a bird in the Bronze Age in certain funerary contexts and this continues in the Geometric period. In the Archaic period, the soul takes on human characteristics and it is represented by a figure with human head and feet but a bird body with wings. In the Classical period, the soul is mostly human with only wings remaining as a vestige of the avian origin. These soul-birds appear in art found in funerary contexts that depict some stage of the funerary ritual. The thesis begins by discussing the Greek concept of the soul and how it was first conceived as several different entities but then became unified under the term psyche. The main evidence in this first chapter is the Homeric epics, which date to the eighth century BC, the mythic cycle of Orpheus. which was popular in the sixth century BC, and the philosophy of Plato from the fourth century BC. The progression of the soul toward a unitary model is important to this argument because it complements the increasing amount of human qualities that the bird in art acquires. Chapter Two outlines the funerary customs of the ancient Greeks in order to show how the Greeks treated the dead body and to show how they may have perceived the soul. Chapter Three details some of the scholarship on the birds including early theories about the soul as a bird. The most popular theory is that the bird represents a divine epiphany, meaning a manifestation of the divine in this world, but it is applied uncritically and it is not always appropriate for the bird in funerary art. Chapters Four, Five, and Six discuss the art of the Bronze Age, Geometric period. and the Archaic and Classical periods, respectively. The overall conclusion of this thesis is that the bird in funerary art of the Bronze Age can represent the soul of the deceased in some funerary contexts and it is the antecedent of the winged souls of the art in the Classical period. The aim is not to disprove the theory of divine epiphany in bird form, but to assert and highlight another possible interpretation in order to open up other avenues of interpretation and to shed light on Greek conceptions of the soul.

Samples from nearly 800 Bronze Age pottery sherds from Euboea, Eastern Boeotia and Eastern Thessaly were analysed together with 9 raw clays from the same areas. The-analysis was carried out in an attempt to identify areas of pottery manufacture, to discover the origin of specific groups of pottery, to relate pottery to, raw clays and to see how far pottery compositions can be associated with, and predicted by, geology. The work was done on the same lines as earlier studies at the Oxford Laboratory and at the British School at Athens. The main analytical technique used was therefore optical emission spectroscopy. Some 25% of the total number of sherds were also analysed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry so that the results obtained by the two techniques could be compared. The interpretation of the results was facilitated by the use of, computer program packages for cluster and discriminant analysis. Both optical emission and atomic absorption analysis resulted in broadly similar groupings although the absolute concentrations were not directly comparable. The groupings obtained after atomic absorption analysis had the narrower concentration ranges. Nine elements were measured by both techniques but in atomic absorption potassium was added and proved; useful as an additional discriminant. Six composition groups were distinguished from the data. One of them was identified as Euboean, 2 as Boeotian and 3 as coming from different regions of Thessaly. The greatest movement of pottery within these areas was from Euboea to Thessaly. No composition group which originated from outside these regions was identified. Six of the 9 raw clays were associated with the prevailing composition group in the area from which they came. It was not possible to predict trends in pottery composition by examination of the local geology.

This thesis undertakes a complete reinvestigation of the archaeology of a large Early Bronze Age cemetery at İkiztepe in northern Turkey, by utilizing oxygen and strontium isotope analysis of human remains in combination with spatial and biodistance analysis and various dating techniques to identify potential immigrants to the site and to examine larger issues of residential mobility and social organization. The occupation of the Northern Anatolian site of İkiztepe is traditionally assigned to the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Ages. However, the site’s chronological framework has been challenged in recent years. These chronological issues have been addressed by applying fluoride and AMS radiocarbon dating to the skeletal remains from the İkiztepe cemetery, to develop an absolute and relative chronology for the burials. These results have shown that the cemetery dates at least a millennium earlier than previously supposed. Oxygen and strontium isotope analyses allowed the identification of individuals whose bone chemistry suggests that they were possible long distance immigrants to the site of İkiztepe, as well as suggesting the existence of a group of mobile individuals who may represent a transhumant segment of the İkiztepe population. Spatial and biodistance analyses suggest that principles of cemetery organization in this period were highly complex. Immigrant individuals and nomadic or semi-nomadic segments of the population do not appear to have been distinguished in any observable way from their sedentary local counterparts, displaying similar burial types, grave goods and spatial locations. Furthermore, burial within the İkiztepe cemetery does not appear to have been kin structured. These results suggest that assumptions about funerary practices as important indicators of cultural identity and lineage affiliation may represent an over-simplification of complex patterns of interaction and integration among and within populations and cultural groups.

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