現代的社會已逐漸從工業社會中，步入後工業社會，亦即代表著資訊時代的來臨。每天我們可以從各種不同的傳播媒體、通訊設備中，接收到許許多多的訊息。這些訊息數量之多，種類之繁複，已遠非一般人能夠消化吸收。於是，邁向專業化之呼聲愈來愈高，也愈來愈需要各種不同的專業人才，幫助人們將許多不同的資訊分類整理。只有各種專業人士各盡其才，各司其職，社會才能如常運作下去。二十世紀是一個變動不居，從傳統到現代的時代，官僚制度的性質亦由消極的保障，步入了積極服務的行政時代，因此政府組織也不斷地擴充發展，加以官僚人員所要處理的事務日益專精，未具備專門知識與技能的人就無法勝任。因此專家行政也因而興起，經由考試、教育及訓練制度的種種配合，使得欲擔任現代政府公務職位者，必須具有專門知識與技能才行。專業人士的增加，既是不可忽視的事實，在公共行政組織中，是否就意味著需要讓更多職位更加專業化？或是引進更多專業人才？而一旦引進這些專業人士之後，對原來官僚化的組織會造成何種衝擊？產生何種影響呢？且在民主參與呼聲高漲的今日社會，公共事務交由專家來決定，是否有違民主精神？民眾又該如何監督呢？凡此種種問題，都在本篇論文中有所述及。是以本篇論文的研究範圍，即鎖定在公共行政組織不斷地引進專業人才，愈來愈專業化後，對於原來之科層組織，及組織外在環境（例如民主環境、公共問題的解決，及環境的變遷等）之影響。其架構如下： 　　第一章：緒論。 　　第二章：理論之探討。首先，先從組織理論發展的歷程，說明在這些組織理論中，對專業化的概念如何？了解專業化在組織理論中之演變後，再探討專業主義興起的背景與其內涵何在？最後，再略述美國專業化之發展狀況。 　　第三章：專業化對官僚體系之影響。本章主要是針對專業化對組織本身之影響，是以先對官僚組織的結構面、功能面、及心理面等，提出一些討論及看法，再試圖比較專業取向的組織和官僚組織的不同之處。並且組織中的權威對組織目標的達成、組織人員的互動、及合法性、正當性都有很大的影響，是以第二節將探究官僚權威和專業權威的問題。接著再探討組織中的管理人員與專業人員互動之情況，首先會先探究專業人員在一般組織，或公會中之角色，再討論專業人員與管理人員的衝突問題。最後，再探究專業化對官僚組織產生的優缺點。 　　第四章：專業化對組織外在環境之影響。公共行政組織的一大特色，就是它必須服務一般民眾，對社會大眾的要求要有所回應，是以本章就是針對專業化之後，其對組織的外在環境所產生的影響。首先先討論與環境有關的相關理論後，再來研究所謂的「專業知識」，是否真的對公共問題的解決有幫助？接著探討在目前不斷倡議民主政治、公民參與的現代社會中，專業化對其有何影響？是否真有害於民主政治？最後再提出專業化對外在環境影響之優缺點。 　　第五章：結論。首先提出一些個人的建議與看法，從專業人員的教育與訓練、對專業人員之激勵及專業倫理方面，探究要如何建立專業形象以改善服務品質，最後再總結全文並對未來提出一些看法及期許。

本論文在說明中共政權建立後，如何通過國家機器和其他動員力量，配合 政治經濟等手段，使中國大陸原有成千上萬私營工商業向社會主義公有制 過渡的過程。論文共分七章，第一章說明研究動機、目的、方法、限制及 資料來源。第二章探討對資本主義工商業實行社會主義改造的理論基礎， 主要是馬克思、恩格斯的贖買理論，和列寧、中共所採行的國家資本主義 。第三、四、五章研究對私營工商業改造的三個步驟：利用、限制、改造 。每個階段各有基本前提和具體措施，論文詳細說明中共採取哪些利用和 限制的方法，以達到完成改造的目的。第六章探討幾個問題，諸如改造的 歷史評價？改造進度何以大幅度加快？改造得以順利完成的原因？改造過 程的瑕疵與？第七章結論，首先分析消滅私營工商業對中國大陸經濟、社 會、政治各方面帶來哪些影響。其次，作者藉改造的歷史經驗，並針對「 中」港兩岸之間的互動，提供臺灣在未來應有的幾點思考。

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The purpose of this study is to highlight the work of asylum case- and executive officers at the Swedish Migration Agency. It focuses on the oral investigation that is conducted by the Swedish Migration Agency with an asylum seeker in Sweden, how the case- and executive officers assess if an asylum seeker is credible, and if there are any difficulties with this process. The aim of this study has not been to investigate how the credibility and reliability assessments should be conducted; instead, it has been to understand the complexity of these assessment and how the case- and executive officers experience the same. The study is ethnographic, and the empirical material consists of interviews with individuals who work as case- and executive officers at the Migration Agency's asylum units in Sweden. The study has a qualitative approach since the interest lies in individual experiences. The analysis is based on extracts from the interviews and is linked to existing research and theories. Theoretically, the thesis is inspired by Michael Lipsky's concept of street-level bureaucracy. In addition, we have also built up a theoretical chapter presenting the legal framework. The study shows that the assessment of an asylum seeker is a complicated and abstract process. And in the end, it all comes down to an overall assessment.

The aim of this study is to examine and deepen the knowledge of how socialworkers within social services unit of children experienced their own requisites to work with disabled children in relation to the organisations requisites. The study emenated from the questions  ”How does the socialworkers experience the organizational possibilities to work with disabled children? ” and “What organizational factors does the socialworkers think affects their work with disabled children? ”. Method: We have used a hermeneutic perspective and qualitative approach. Semi-structured interviews with socialworkers within social services unit of children twas used to collect data. Theory: Our theoretical point have been Lipskys theory about the street-level bureaucrat. In this theory we used the concepts of the problem of resources, pressure of time and discretion have mainly been used as tools in the analyze.

Den föreliggande studien syftar till att undersöka hur socialsekreterare inomsektionen barn och familj, enheten för ekonomiskt bistånd upplever följandeaspekter: bemötandet i sig och dess betydelse samt vikten av bemötandet irelationsskapande och samarbete. Vidare syftar studien även till att undersöka ifallbemötandet är något som skiljer sig åt beroende på klient samt vilkaföreställningar det finns om hur ett gott bemötande skapas. Denna studie grundarsig på en kvalitativ ansats där vi i analys och resultat presenterar information somhar inhämtats från totalt 6 semistrukturerade intervjuer. I analysen tolkas deninhämtade informationen utifrån pliktetik, situationsetik och Michael Lipskysteori om vad som definierar en gräsrotsbyråkrat. Resultatet visar på skildaupplevelser kring vad ett gott bemötande är med en framträdande och gemensamupplevelse om att bemötande är något individuellt, och därför bör bemötandetäven anpassas utefter varje klient, situation och ärende. Utgångspunkten ärdäremot att alla klienter skall bemötas med respekt och stå lika inför lag. I studienobserveras även olika föreställningar om hur ett gott bemötande skapas, vilketyttrar sig som olika aspekter som underlättar för att socialsekreteraren skall kunnage ett gott bemötande: erfarenhet, kompetens, en / The aim of this study is to examine how social secretaries in the child and familysection, unit of economic assistance, experience the following aspects of treatmenttoward clients: the concept itself and its meaning in relationships and cooperation.Furthermore the study also aim to examine if the treatment varies on account ofthe client and what concepts there are as to what generates a good treatment. Thisstudy is based on a qualitative approach where the information has been gatheredfrom six semi-structured interviews. The information has been interpreted andanalyzed on the basis of duty ethics, situational ethics and Michael Lipsky’stheory of what defines a street-level bureaucrat. The results shows differentexperiences on what a good treatment is, the most prominent and commonexperience is that treatment is something individual and therefore all clientsshould be treated accordingly. However, the main point is that every client shouldbe treated with respect and stand equally under the law. The study also showsdifferent conceptions on how a good treatment is created and these are:experience, competence, a good relationship and an effective cooperation betweenthe social secretary and the client.

Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka hur arbetsmarknadssekreterare och socialsekreterare inom socialtjänsten Väster i Malmö upplever pilotprojektet Tidig inskrivning samt hur deras handlingsutrymme och inbördes samverkan förändrats i projektet. Syftet med projektet är att förkorta vägen mot självförsörjning och skapa en tidig planering för klienten. Projektet riktas mot de klienter som erhåller ekonomiskt bistånd. Pilotprojektet implementerades den åttonde januari 2018 och skall avslutas den 30 juni 2018. Vi undersöker således hur projektet erfars av arbetsmarknadssekreterare och socialsekreterare angående projektet och dess implementering samt hur informanterna upplever att pilotprojektet påverkat deras handlingsutrymme och inbördes samverkan. De teoretiska utgångspunkterna för uppsatsens är ett instrumentellt organisationsteoretiskt perspektiv samt Michael Lipskys teori angående street-level bureaucracy. Använd metod för denna uppsats är en kvalitativ metod med semistrukturerade intervjuer. Vi har intervjuat tre arbetsmarknadssekreterare och tre socialsekreterare som arbetar med projektet. Vi fann i det empiriska materialet att informanterna upplevde implementeringen som vag och ytterst lite information gavs till arbetsmarknadssekreterarna och socialsekreterarna angående hur projektet skulle förändra deras arbetsgång. Informanterna upplevde även en frustration både hos kollegor, de själva och klienten i ärendegången i projektet. Informanternas handlingsutrymme och inbördes samverkan har förändrats i projektet då resurs-och tidsbrist skapat förändringar i både samverkan och handlingsutrymme för de båda professionerna. / The aim of this bachelor essay is to examine the experience of the social workers in the project pilot called the “Tidig inskrivning”, meaning early enrollment. The aim of this project is to plan the enrolment towars the regular labour market. The project pilot launched in 8th of January and ended in 30th of June in 2018. The involved professions in the project on a daily basis is labour secretaries and social secretaries. The issues concerning our essay is: How does the labour secretaries and social secretaries experience the project pilot and how do the informants experience that the Early Enrollment pilot project has influenced their leeway and mutual cooperation?The theoretical premise for this essay is an instrumental organization theory and Michael Lipsky’s theory concerning street-level-bureaucracy. The method used in this essay was a qualitive method using a semi structured interview. The project pilot is directed to all clients that applies for a social assistance. These clients are the called to a meeting with the labour secretaries to a survey including the clients past work experiences and education. The client is then to have a meeting to review the conditions of the social assistance. We found that the labour secretaries did not experience the project as useful, they found the project as time consuming and unnecessary for both the client and to them as labour secretaries. The social secretaries experienced the project and unnecessary and informed us that the client found the project as time consuming and frustrating. The leeway for the labour secretaries and the social secretaries has changed within the project pilot. The cooperation between the two professions is affected by the project in the sense that it is greatly time consuming for the labour secretaries and the social secretaries have no chance to a cooperation with the labour secretaries as they did before. The changes made to the leeway and cooperation between the two professions have changed because of lack of resources and time.

Uppsatsen syftade till att undersöka vilket handlingsutrymme socialtjänstens handläggare i en mindre kommun har vid utredning av insatsen boendestöd. Sju informanter, två stycken enhetschefer och fem stycken handläggare, från två enheter deltog i en intervjustudie kompletterad med tre stycken vinjettfall. En av enheterna arbetar gentemot beroende och den andra mot socialpsykiatri. I resultatet framkom en viss skillnad i hur enheternas personal förklarar och beskriver sitt handlingsutrymme. I den aktuella kommunen saknas lokala riktlinjer för insatsen boendestöd vilket påverkar handläggarnas handlingsutrymme och handlingsfrihet på flera sätt enligt informanterna. Några informanter känner sig begränsade i sitt arbete på grund av avsaknaden av lokala riktlinjer medan andra ger intryck av att känna sig friare i sitt arbete. För att beviljas boendestöd från socialpsykiatrin krävs en längre tids kontakt med psykiatrin, medan det inte krävs någon dokumentation gällande ett missbruks varaktighet för att beviljas boendestöd från beroende.

Background: In Sweden the national labour market policies are administered by the Public Employment Service which is in charge of assessing job-seekers’ need for support in the process of reaching employment. Equality is a fundamental principle for the administration. Neither ethnicity nor the person’s economical situation should influence the assessment. At the same time job-seekers are entitled to an individual assessment. Although the state has a national responsibility for labour market policy since the 1990s different municipal labour market interventions have also developed.   Aim: To investigate the impact of different income support systems (unemployment benefit/activity support or social assistance) and ethnicity on the assessments made by public employment officers.   Method: The study used a quantitative method with a questionnaire in the form of a factorial vignette experiment with fictitious cases in which only one factor/variable changed. 118 respondents at eight employment offices completed the survey between 20 January and 1 April 2020. Correlation analyses were performed using crosstabs (Cramers V) and Chi2-tests. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to compare data at two different times (first and second phase of the survey).   Results: Employment officers advocated support at the employment service/external operator as their first choice in 86 per cent of cases, against municipal labour market interventions as first choice in 14 per cent of cases. There were statistically significant differences in the assessments based on the form of income support in all three vignettes. Unemployment benefit/activity support and social assistance resulted in statistically significant different assessments. Employment officers want to refer job-seekers with social assistance to municipal labour market interventions more often than they do with those with unemployment benefit or activity income. No significant differences in the assessments were observed regarding the ethnicity of job-seekers.   Conclusions: The study shows that in the process of labour market policy assessment not only the job-seeker's ability to work and the need for support to find a job is evaluated, but the income support system of the job-seeker plays a role. The differences in assessments based on the job-seekers' form of income may be due to categorisations. These categorisations may spring from stereotypical views of job-seekers benefiting from social assistance, or may be due to institutional factors with two different income support systems for the unemployed, or lastly spring from a lack of clarity regarding borders and distribution between national and municipal labour market policies. Regardless the reason, the categorisations might lead to significant consequences for job-seekers with social assistance, who in addition to a lower level of economical compensation also risk being referred to municipal labour market interventions. These are sometimes designed to be a demand for activity in return for receiving social assistance and do not always have as their primary purpose to strengthen working capacity. Based on the results of the study, Sweden thereby does not live up to being a universal welfare state with social citizenship, since social rights do not apply equally to all job seekers.

Studien syftade till att undersöka hur socialsekreterare beskriver familjehemsföräldrars behov av stöd vid sammanbrott samt vilka möjligheter de uppfattar sig ha att möta stödbehovet. Sju socialsekreterare deltog i studien och data samlades in genom en fokusgruppsdiskussion och tre enskilda intervjuer. Studiens teoretiska ansats var teorin om gräsrotsbyråkrati samt begreppet handlingsutrymme. Resultatet visade att de intervjuade socialsekreterarna upplevde en svårighet att prata om sammanbrottet utan att se till placeringen i sin helhet. Det blev också tydligt att ämnet var ovanligt för socialsekreterarna att reflektera över. Stödjande samtal uppfattades vara det främsta stödbehovet och socialsekreterarna beskrev en för familjehemsföräldrarna känslomässig process i samband med ett sammanbrott, vilken de bemötte med tid för återhämtning samt “ett lyssnande öra”. Organisatoriska förutsättningar i form av arbetets organisering och dess kultur, ledningens insyn och förtroende, hög arbetsbelastning samt geografiskt långa avstånd var aspekter vilka möjliggjorde eller begränsade socialsekreterarna. / The aim of the study was to examine how social workers describe foster parents’ need of support in the event of a placement breakdown and which opportunities the social workers perceived having to meet the parents’ needs. A focus group and three individual interviews were made, including totally seven social workers in the study. The theoretical approach was the theory of street-level bureaucracy with focus on the concept of discretion. The social workers described a difficulty to talk about placement breakdown without seeing the placement as a whole. It became obvious that identifying foster parents’ needs during or after a placement breakdown was not perceived as part of the social workers’ work tasks. Although, they expressed that foster parents’ may need support in this situation. The social workers described an emotional process for foster parents, which they responded to with listening as well as “giving time for recovery”. Organizational conditions affecting the work were discussed in terms of workplace culture and organization, the management’s insight and trust, a high workload and geographically long distance which enabled or limited the social workers.