Os receptores canabinoides do tipo 1 (CB1) e vaniloides de potencial transitório 1 (TRPV1) presentes no córtex pré-frontal medial ventral (CPFMv) modulam de maneira oposta a resposta emocional condicionada (REC) no modelo do medo condicionado contextual (MCC). Enquanto a ativação de receptores CB1 reduz as respostas comportamental e cardiovascular da REC, a ativação de TRPV1 aumenta tais parâmetros. Além destes receptores, receptores de glutamato do tipo NMDA e o sistema nitrérgico no CPFMv estão envolvidos na modulação da REC. Possivelmente, tanto a resposta modulada pelo receptor CB1 quanto pelo TRPV1 estão ligadas à modulação da liberação de glutamato e produção de óxido nítrico (NO). Outro neurotransmissor que também possui papel importante na REC é a acetilcolina (ACh) e que provavelmente atua via NO e eCBs. O favorecimento desta neurotransmissão no CPFMv aumenta a REC por meio da ativação de receptores muscarínicos M3. É descrito que a ativação de receptores muscarínicos induz a produção de NO, o qual pode aumentar a liberação de glutamato e, assim, aumentar a REC. Além disso, a ativação de receptores muscarínicos também podem induzir a produção de endocanabinoiodes (eCBs), como a anandamida (AEA), neuromoduladores que podem influenciar a liberação de glutamato, via CB1 ou TRPV1 e, consequentemente, podem afetar a REC. Portanto, o objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar se um antagonista CB1 (NIDA41020) e um agonista TRPV1 (capsaicina) atuam através da via NMDA/NO e se o aumento dos níveis de ACh modula a neurotransmissão gluatamatérgicapor meio de eCBs e NO. Ratos wistars com cânulas direcionadas para o CPFMv foram submetidos ao protocolo de medo condicionado ao contexto. No dia seguinte, cateter de polietileno foi implantado na artéria femoral para posterior registro cardiovascular. 24h após, as drogas foram administradas no CPFMv e o tempo de congelamento e a resposta autonômica foram avaliados durante a reexposição ao contexto. Tanto o NIDA quanto a capsaicina aumentaram a expressão da REC, independentemente de a administração ser na porção PL ou IL. A resposta do antagonismo de CB1 parece depender da ativação de TRPV1 e a resposta do antagonismo TRPV1 depende da ativação de CB1. O aumento da REC induzida por antagonista CB1 ou agonista TRPV1 foi prevenida com a administração prévia de antagonista NMDA ou inibidor da enzima nNOS. A administração de um sequestrador de NO ou de um inibidor da enzima guanilato ciclase solúvel (GCs) preveniu apenas a resposta do antagonismo CB1. O aumento da REC evocado pelo agonista TRPV1 foi prevenido com a microinjeção de antioxidante/sequestrador de radicais livres. Desta maneira, os resultados demonstram que no CPFMv o receptor CB1 modula a expressão da REC através da via NMDA/NO/GCs e o receptor TRPV1 através da via NMDA/NO/Estresse nitrosativo. Além disso, a administração de um inibidor da enzima acetilcolinesterase (AChE) aumentou a REC, sendo este efeito prevenido com a administração prévia de antagonista NMDA, inibidor da nNOS, sequestrador de NO, inibidor da GCs e antagonista de receptores TRPV1. O aumento da REC evocado pelo antagonista CB1 e agonista TRPV1 não foi prevenido pela administração local prévia de antagonista de receptores M3. Este resultado indica que a resposta promovida pela ACh modula a neurotransmissão glutamatérgica possivelmente através da produção de NO e ativação de TRPV1pela AEA e que os eCBs não modulam a transmissão colinérgica no CPFMv. Portanto, podemos sugerir que a re-exposição ao contexto aversivo aumenta os níveis de ACh no CPFMv e, assim, ativa receptores M3 que, por sua vez, induzem a produção de eCBs, possivelmente AEA, e NO. O NO atuaria pré- sinapticamente aumentando a liberação de glutamato, e a AEA ativaria receptores TRPV1 pós-sinápticos que ativaria mecanismos de estresse nitrosativo decorrentes da produção do NO. / CB1 and TRPV1 receptors present in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) have been related in the modulation of defensive behavior, as fear conditioning response. In contextual fear conditioning, CB1 and TRPV1 antagonism increase and decrease, respectively, the behavior and autonomic response during the reexposure to aversive context. CB1 and TRPV1 activation lead to decrease and increase of glutamate release, respectively. Glutamate is an important neurotransmitter in vmPFC involve in cardiovascular and behavioral response. NMDA activation can promote nitric oxide (NO) production, and this mediator could regulate the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic signaling. Another important neurotransmission related to REC and eCBs/NO is Acetylcholine (ACh). AChE inhibitor in vmPFC increase conditioned response expression through M3 receptor activation. Muscarinic activation leads to NO production and this event can increase the glutamate release. Moreover, muscarinic activation also can induce endocannabinoid (eCBs) production and modulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by CB1 and TRPV1 receptors. Thus, NO and eCBs production by muscarinic activation probably affect conditioned response through glutamate release. Our aim in this study was to investigate if CB1 antagonism and TRPV1 agonism promote an increase in conditioned response by NMDA/NO pathway. In addition, AChE inhibitor inject in vmPFC modulate glutamatergic neurotransmission by NO and eCBs. Male wistars rats with guide cannulas invmPFC were submitted to contextual fear conditioning. 1 day after conditioning, a polyethylene catheter was implanted in the femoral artery for cardiovascular recording. Following 24h, drugs were administrated in vmPFC and freezing behavior and autonomic response was recorded during context reexposure. CB1 antagonism and TRPV1 agonism increased the expression of conditioned emotional response and the response was not different when injected in PL or IL subareas. The response of CB1 antagonism depends on TRPV1 activation and response of TRPV1 antagonism depends on CB1 activation, demonstrating the relation of these receptors. The effect induced by CB1 antagonism and TRPV1 agonism were prevented by an NMDA antagonism and preferential neuronal NO synthase inhibitor. In case of CB1 antagonism, NO scavenger and a soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor (sGC) also prevented this response, but not response induced by TRPV1 agonism. Effect of TRPV1 agonism was prevented by administration of antioxidant/free radical scavenger. In addition, inhibition of AChE in vmPFC increased the conditioned response and this effect was prevented by NMDA antagonist, nNOS inhibitor, NO scavenger, sGC inhibitor and TRPV1 antagonist. CB1 antagonist and TRPV1 agonist increased conditioned response and M3 antagonist was not able to prevent this effect. Our results demonstrated that the response promoted by ACh modulate glutamatergic neurotransmission through NO and TRPV1 activation (by AEA). Moreover, endocannabinoid system did not affect cholinergic neurotransmission. Therefore, we suggest that reexposure to aversive context increase ACh concentration in vmPFC and thus induce activation of the M3 receptor. M3 receptor promote NO and eCBs production. NO act in pre-synaptic terminalenhancing glutamate release and AEA activate the TRPV1 receptor in the postsynaptic terminal that act by nitrosative stress in NO pathway.

Os receptores canabinoides do tipo 1 (CB1) e vaniloides de potencial transitório 1 (TRPV1) presentes no córtex pré-frontal medial ventral (CPFMv) modulam de maneira oposta a resposta emocional condicionada (REC) no modelo do medo condicionado contextual (MCC). Enquanto a ativação de receptores CB1 reduz as respostas comportamental e cardiovascular da REC, a ativação de TRPV1 aumenta tais parâmetros. Além destes receptores, receptores de glutamato do tipo NMDA e o sistema nitrérgico no CPFMv estão envolvidos na modulação da REC. Possivelmente, tanto a resposta modulada pelo receptor CB1 quanto pelo TRPV1 estão ligadas à modulação da liberação de glutamato e produção de óxido nítrico (NO). Outro neurotransmissor que também possui papel importante na REC é a acetilcolina (ACh) e que provavelmente atua via NO e eCBs. O favorecimento desta neurotransmissão no CPFMv aumenta a REC por meio da ativação de receptores muscarínicos M3. É descrito que a ativação de receptores muscarínicos induz a produção de NO, o qual pode aumentar a liberação de glutamato e, assim, aumentar a REC. Além disso, a ativação de receptores muscarínicos também podem induzir a produção de endocanabinoiodes (eCBs), como a anandamida (AEA), neuromoduladores que podem influenciar a liberação de glutamato, via CB1 ou TRPV1 e, consequentemente, podem afetar a REC. Portanto, o objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar se um antagonista CB1 (NIDA41020) e um agonista TRPV1 (capsaicina) atuam através da via NMDA/NO e se o aumento dos níveis de ACh modula a neurotransmissão gluatamatérgicapor meio de eCBs e NO. Ratos wistars com cânulas direcionadas para o CPFMv foram submetidos ao protocolo de medo condicionado ao contexto. No dia seguinte, cateter de polietileno foi implantado na artéria femoral para posterior registro cardiovascular. 24h após, as drogas foram administradas no CPFMv e o tempo de congelamento e a resposta autonômica foram avaliados durante a reexposição ao contexto. Tanto o NIDA quanto a capsaicina aumentaram a expressão da REC, independentemente de a administração ser na porção PL ou IL. A resposta do antagonismo de CB1 parece depender da ativação de TRPV1 e a resposta do antagonismo TRPV1 depende da ativação de CB1. O aumento da REC induzida por antagonista CB1 ou agonista TRPV1 foi prevenida com a administração prévia de antagonista NMDA ou inibidor da enzima nNOS. A administração de um sequestrador de NO ou de um inibidor da enzima guanilato ciclase solúvel (GCs) preveniu apenas a resposta do antagonismo CB1. O aumento da REC evocado pelo agonista TRPV1 foi prevenido com a microinjeção de antioxidante/sequestrador de radicais livres. Desta maneira, os resultados demonstram que no CPFMv o receptor CB1 modula a expressão da REC através da via NMDA/NO/GCs e o receptor TRPV1 através da via NMDA/NO/Estresse nitrosativo. Além disso, a administração de um inibidor da enzima acetilcolinesterase (AChE) aumentou a REC, sendo este efeito prevenido com a administração prévia de antagonista NMDA, inibidor da nNOS, sequestrador de NO, inibidor da GCs e antagonista de receptores TRPV1. O aumento da REC evocado pelo antagonista CB1 e agonista TRPV1 não foi prevenido pela administração local prévia de antagonista de receptores M3. Este resultado indica que a resposta promovida pela ACh modula a neurotransmissão glutamatérgica possivelmente através da produção de NO e ativação de TRPV1pela AEA e que os eCBs não modulam a transmissão colinérgica no CPFMv. Portanto, podemos sugerir que a re-exposição ao contexto aversivo aumenta os níveis de ACh no CPFMv e, assim, ativa receptores M3 que, por sua vez, induzem a produção de eCBs, possivelmente AEA, e NO. O NO atuaria pré- sinapticamente aumentando a liberação de glutamato, e a AEA ativaria receptores TRPV1 pós-sinápticos que ativaria mecanismos de estresse nitrosativo decorrentes da produção do NO. / CB1 and TRPV1 receptors present in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) have been related in the modulation of defensive behavior, as fear conditioning response. In contextual fear conditioning, CB1 and TRPV1 antagonism increase and decrease, respectively, the behavior and autonomic response during the reexposure to aversive context. CB1 and TRPV1 activation lead to decrease and increase of glutamate release, respectively. Glutamate is an important neurotransmitter in vmPFC involve in cardiovascular and behavioral response. NMDA activation can promote nitric oxide (NO) production, and this mediator could regulate the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic signaling. Another important neurotransmission related to REC and eCBs/NO is Acetylcholine (ACh). AChE inhibitor in vmPFC increase conditioned response expression through M3 receptor activation. Muscarinic activation leads to NO production and this event can increase the glutamate release. Moreover, muscarinic activation also can induce endocannabinoid (eCBs) production and modulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by CB1 and TRPV1 receptors. Thus, NO and eCBs production by muscarinic activation probably affect conditioned response through glutamate release. Our aim in this study was to investigate if CB1 antagonism and TRPV1 agonism promote an increase in conditioned response by NMDA/NO pathway. In addition, AChE inhibitor inject in vmPFC modulate glutamatergic neurotransmission by NO and eCBs. Male wistars rats with guide cannulas invmPFC were submitted to contextual fear conditioning. 1 day after conditioning, a polyethylene catheter was implanted in the femoral artery for cardiovascular recording. Following 24h, drugs were administrated in vmPFC and freezing behavior and autonomic response was recorded during context reexposure. CB1 antagonism and TRPV1 agonism increased the expression of conditioned emotional response and the response was not different when injected in PL or IL subareas. The response of CB1 antagonism depends on TRPV1 activation and response of TRPV1 antagonism depends on CB1 activation, demonstrating the relation of these receptors. The effect induced by CB1 antagonism and TRPV1 agonism were prevented by an NMDA antagonism and preferential neuronal NO synthase inhibitor. In case of CB1 antagonism, NO scavenger and a soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor (sGC) also prevented this response, but not response induced by TRPV1 agonism. Effect of TRPV1 agonism was prevented by administration of antioxidant/free radical scavenger. In addition, inhibition of AChE in vmPFC increased the conditioned response and this effect was prevented by NMDA antagonist, nNOS inhibitor, NO scavenger, sGC inhibitor and TRPV1 antagonist. CB1 antagonist and TRPV1 agonist increased conditioned response and M3 antagonist was not able to prevent this effect. Our results demonstrated that the response promoted by ACh modulate glutamatergic neurotransmission through NO and TRPV1 activation (by AEA). Moreover, endocannabinoid system did not affect cholinergic neurotransmission. Therefore, we suggest that reexposure to aversive context increase ACh concentration in vmPFC and thus induce activation of the M3 receptor. M3 receptor promote NO and eCBs production. NO act in pre-synaptic terminalenhancing glutamate release and AEA activate the TRPV1 receptor in the postsynaptic terminal that act by nitrosative stress in NO pathway.

This work seeks to contribute to the discipline of neuropharmacology by way of structure activity relationship from the standpoint of an organic chemist. More specifically, we sought to develop robust synthetic methodology able to efficiently produce an array of compounds for the purpose of systematic evaluation of their interaction with specific sights within the central nervous system (CNS) in order to better understand the mind and to develop drugs that may have beneficial effects on neurological function. The focus of these studies has been toward the development of novel molecules, using a structure-activity relationship approach, that exhibit binding affinity at specific targets within the CNS. The merit of such studies is twofold: primarily, new compounds are produced that provide valuable scientific insight about their physiological targets, and secondarily, new synthetic methodologies that may arise in order to produce these compounds, thereby contributing to the whole of organic chemistry. As a result of the research described herein, the development of one high affinity and several moderate affinity compounds at the cannabinoid receptor subtype 1 (CB1) has been accomplished. The research demonstrates that a diaryl ether molecular scaffold represents a successful motif in the cannabinoid pharmacophore. The production of the compounds in the SAR studies also introduced a novel general synthetic methodology for the synthesis of diaryl ethers around a phloroglucinol core. A second project was initiated in order to explore the synthetic methods required to develop a general process for the synthesis of rigid aminobenzocyclobutane analogs of known phenethylamines with activity at monoaminergic neurotransmitter sites. Using the synthetic approach devised here, four novel aminobenzocyclobutane isomeric analogs of a known pharmacologically active phenethylamine, (RS)-phenylpropan-amine were synthesized and are currently being evaluated for pharmacological potential.

Résumé confidentiel / Résumé confidentiel

La adicción es un trastorno crónico de la conducta caracterizado por la búsqueda y el consumo compulsivos de la droga, la pérdida de control para limitar dicho consumo, a aparición de un estado emocional negativo cuando el acceso a la droga está impedido y la recaída en el proceso incluso tras largos períodos de abstinencia. El sistema dopaminérgico mesolímbico cortical ha sido propuesto como la principal base neurobiológica de la adicción, sin embargo existen otros sistemas de neurotransmision que participan en la consolidación del proceso adictivo.El sistema endocannabinoide, a traves del receptor CB1, participa en las propiedades adictivas de diferentes drogas de abuso como el delta9-tetrahidrocannabinol, la nicotina y la morfina. Sin embargo, hasta el momento de iniciar este trabajo, pocos estudios han demostrado una clara implicación del sistema endocannabinoide en las propiedades reforzantes de los psicoestimulantes. Mediante el uso de ratones CB1 knockout, hemos demostrado que el receptor CB1 participa en la eficacia reforzante de la cocaína. Además, la presencia de dicho receptor es necesaria para los procesos de consolidación de una conducta operante mantenida por la autoadministración de cocaína. Este estudio demuestra la importancia de dicho receptor CB1 en las propiedades adictivas de la cocaína, confirmando que el sistema endocannabinoide es un sustrato común para la adicción de drogas de abuso. Por otra parte, el sistema purinérgico modula numerosos sistemas de neurotransmisión en el SNC. La estrecha relación a nivel celular y funcional entre los receptores de adenosina y los receptores dopaminérgicos proporciona evidencias de que el sistema purinérgico podría modular los sistemas de recompensa. Utilizando diferentes modelos animales, hemos demostrado que los receptores de adenosina A2A son necesarios para que las propiedades adictivas de las drogas de abuso como los cannabinoides, los opioides, la nicotina y los psicoestimulantes se produzcan de un modo completo.Nuestros estudios nos permiten afirmar que ambos sistemas, el cannabinoide y el purinérgico podría suponer la existencia de nuevos sistemas de modulación común de los procesos adictivos. Asi, sería de gran interés desarrollar nuevas estrategias de bloqueo de los receptores A2A y CB1 para atenuar e incluso prevenir el desarrollo de la adicción. / Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder that is defined by a compulsion to take the drug intake, a loss of control in limiting intake and a withdrawal-negative affect state when the access to the drug is interrupted. Mesolimbic dopaminergic system has been proposed as a fundamental neurobiological substrate for drug addiction. However, there is evidence for other neurotransmitter systems involved in the consolidation of the addictive process. The endocannabinoid system, through the activation of CB1 receptor, participates in the addictive properties of different drugs of abuse such as delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, morphine and nicotine. Nevertheless, few studies have revealed an important implication of CB1 receptor in the reinforcing properties of psychostimulants. By using CB1 knockout mice, we have demonstrated that CB1 receptor participates in the reinforcing efficacy of cocaine. Moreover, this receptor is necessary for the consolidation processes involved in cocaine maintained intravenous self-administration. Therefore, this study reveals an essential role of CB1 receptor in cocaine addictive properties, confirming that the endocannabinoid system is a common substrate of addiction to drugs of abuse.On the other hand, the purinergic system modulates different neurotransmitter systems in the CNS. Adenosine receptors are closely related to dopaminergic receptors at both cellular and functional levels, suggesting that purinergic system could modulate the reward systems. By using different animal models, we have demonstrated that A2A adenosine receptors are necessary for the development of the addictive properties of drugs of abuse such as opioids, cannabinoids, nicotine and cocaine. Our studies suggest that both cannabinoid and purinergic systems could represent new and common modulatory systems of addictive processes. Thus, it would be of interest to develop new therapeutic targets blocking CB1 and A2A receptors to attenuate the development of addiction.

Le système endocannabinoïde (SEC) a récemment émergé comme un important modulateurde la prise alimentaire et de la balance énergétique. Les récepteurs cannabinoïdes de type 1(récepteurs CB1) et ses ligands endogènes, le 2-arachidonoyl-glycérol (2-AG) et l’anandamide(AEA), sont largement présents au sein du cerveau ainsi qu’au niveau des organespériphériques impliqués dans la régulation du métabolisme énergétique, tels que le foie, letissu adipeux, les muscles squelettiques, le pancréas et le tractus gastro-intestinal. Lastimulation pharmacologique des récepteurs CB1 conduit généralement à une augmentation dela prise et du stockage énergétique, tandis que les antagonistes CB1 exercent les effets opposéschez l’animal ainsi que chez l’homme. De surcroît, des corrélations ont été établies entre unesur régulation pathologique du SEC et les troubles métaboliques.Pourtant, plusieurs preuves indiquent que la relation entre le SEC et le métabolismeénergétique pourrait être plus complexe, probablement à cause de la multiplicité des sites oùle SEC peut agir à travers l’organisme. L’objectif général de ce travail de thèse fut dedisséquer les différents mécanismes par lesquels le SEC régule la prise alimentaire etl’équilibre énergétique. Le premier Chapitre de cette thèse détaille les mécanismes neuronauxmodulant l’équilibre énergétique chez les mammifères. Dans le Chapitre II, nous analysonsles différents types neuronaux cérébraux responsables de l’impact de la signalisation desrécepteurs CB1 sur la prise alimentaire stimulée. Dans le Chapitre III, nous proposons que leblocage pharmacologique des récepteurs CB1 exerce un effet anorexigène en agissant sur lesneurones périphériques sympathiques. Enfin, au cours du Chapitre IV nous disséquons le rôlepossible des récepteurs CB1 sur la balance énergétique.Les antagonistes CB1 ont été montrés comme n’exerçant que des effets anorexigènestransitoires, ceux-ci disparaissant après quelques semaines de traitement chez l’animal etquelques mois chez des patients obèses. De plus, les agonistes CB1 résultent en des effets biphasiques typiques. En effet, des doses faibles à modérées augmentent la prise alimentairechez l’animal tandis que de fortes doses diminuent les comportements d’ingestion. Lesrécepteurs CB1 sont exprimés sur différentes populations neuronales, dont les neuronesGABAergiques et glutamatergiques corticaux. Puisque l’activation des récepteurs CB1 induitgénéralement une réduction de la libération des neurotransmetteurs, il est probable que leseffets manifestement contradictoires des manipulations pharmacologiques soient dus à cetteexpression différentielle des récepteurs CB1. En combinant les approches pharmacologiqueset génétiques, nous avons montré que les récepteurs CB1 localisés au niveau du striatumventral sont associés à une action hypophagique via une inhibition de la transmissionGABAergique. Au contraire, les récepteurs CB1 cérébraux modulant les transmissionsexcitatrices sous-tendent l’effet orexigène bien connu des cannabinoïdes (Chapitre II).L’injection aiguë de l’antagoniste CB1, le SR141716 (Rimonabant) a un puissant effetanorexigène dans des conditions de prise alimentaire stimulée, telles que l’hyperphagieinduite par le jeûne. Néanmoins, la nature de cet effet (centrale versus périphérique) ainsi queles circuits neuronaux impliqués sont encore objets d’investigations. Dans le Chapitre III,nous mettons en évidence que l’hypophagie induite par le Rimonabant est indépendante d’unemodulation des transmissions GABAergique, glutamatergique corticale ou sérotoninergiquepar les récepteurs CB1 dans le cerveau, aussi bien que d’actions intrinsèques des récepteursCB1 au niveau de différents noyaux hypothalamiques. En fait, le Rimonabant inhibe la prisealimentaire stimulée en potentialisant directement l’activité du système périphériquesympathique.En ce qui concerne les fonctions métaboliques du SEC, il n’est actuellement pas encoreclairement établi si ce sont les récepteurs CB1 exprimés sur les neurones ou ceux localisés surles organes métaboliques périphériques qui jouent un rôle majeur dans le contrôle du stockageet de la consommation énergétique dans des conditions physiologiques ou pathologiques.Dans ce scenario, au Chapitre IV, nous montrons que les récepteurs CB1 neuronaux jouent unrôle clé dans le développement de l’obésité induite par la diète. Les souris mutantesconditionnelles caractérisées par une délétion des récepteurs CB1 au niveau des neurones duprosencéphale et des neurones périphériques sympathiques (connus pour contrôler la prisealimentaire et le poids corporel) mais pas au niveau des organes périphériques, exhibent unphénotype de type mince ainsi qu’une résistance à l’obésité induite par la diète. Ce phénotyperésulte d’une augmentation de l’oxydation des lipides et de la thermogenèse associée à unediminution de l’absorption énergétique due à une potentialisation de l’activité sympathique.Dans le Chapitre V, nous discutons de la signalisation neuronale des récepteurs CB1 commeune clé déterminante de l’action du SEC sur l’équilibre énergétique. Nous proposons que lesrécepteurs CB1 exercent un contrôle bimodal sur le comportement alimentaire et régulent lesdépenses énergétiques ainsi que l’activité du système nerveux sympathique. Les différencesentre le rôle des agonistes endogènes versus exogènes des récepteurs CB1, mais aussi entre lesagonistes versus antagonistes suggèrent que ces récepteurs pourraient bénéficier de propriétéspharmacologiques particulières à la signalisation du type cellulaire impliqué. / The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has recently emerged as an important modulator of foodintake and energy balance. Cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptor and endogenous ligands, 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) and anandamide (AEA), are largely present in the brain and inperipheral organs involved in the regulation of energy metabolism, such as liver, adiposetissue, skeletal muscle, pancreas and GI tract. Pharmacological CB1 stimulation generallyleads to an increase in energy intake and storage, whereas CB1 antagonists exert the oppositeeffects in both animals and humans. Furthermore, there is evidence of correlations betweenpathological ECS up-regulation and metabolic diseases.However, several pieces of evidence indicate that the relationship between the ECS andenergy intake and metabolism might be more complex than previously believed, likely due tothe different sites where the ECS could act in the body. The general aim of this Thesis workwas to dissect the different mechanisms through which the ECS regulates food intake andenergy balance. The first Chapter of this Thesis is an overview of the neuronal mechanismsregulating energy balance in mammals. In Chapter II, we analysed the brain neuronal typesresponsible of the impact of CB1 signalling on stimulated food intake. Chapter III, reveals thatthe pharmacological blockade of CB1 exerts anorectic effect acting at peripheral sympatheticneurons. Then (chapter IV) we dissected the possible impact of neuronal CB1 onto energybalance.CB1 antagonists were shown to exert only transient anorectic effects, which disappear afterfew weeks of treatment in animals and few months in obese patients. Furthermore, CB1agonists show typical biphasic effects, with low-to-moderate doses increasing food intake inanimals, and high doses decreasing ingestive behaviour. CB1 is expressed in many differentneuronal populations, including GABAergic and cortical glutamatergic neurons. As thegeneral effect of CB1 activation is a reduction of neurotransmitter release, it is possible thatthese apparently discrepant effects of pharmacological manipulations are due to thedifferential expression of the receptor. By using combined pharmacological and geneticapproaches we found that ventral striatal CB1 receptors are endowed with a hypophagicimpact through inhibition of GABAergic transmission. Conversely, brain CB1 receptorsmodulating excitatory transmission mediate the well-known orexigenic effects ofcannabinoids (Chapter II).The acute injection of CB1 antagonist SR141716 (Rimonabant) has an important anorecticeffect in condition of stimulated food intake, such as fasting-induced hyperphagia. However,the nature of this effect (central versus peripheral) as well as the neuronal circuits involved isstill matter of investigation. In Chapter III we show that rimonabant-induced hypophagia isindependent from CB1 modulation of GABAergic, cortical glutamatergic and serotoninergictransmission in the brain, as well as intrinsic actions of CB1 in different hypothalamic nuclei.In fact, rimonabant inhibits stimulated food intake by directly enhancing peripheralsympathetic actions.In relationship to metabolic functions of the ECS, it is not yet clear whether CB1 receptorsexpressed on neurons or on peripheral metabolic organs play a major role in the control ofenergy storage and consumption in both physiological and pathological conditions. In thisscenario, in Chapter IV, we show that neuronal CB1 receptors play a key role in thedevelopment of diet-induced obesity. Conditional mutant mice lacking CB1 expression inforebrain neurons and sympathetic peripheral neurons, known to control food intake and bodyweight, but not in peripheral organs, displayed a lean phenotype and resistance to diet-inducedobesity. This phenotype results from an increase in lipids oxidation and thermogenesis and adecrease in energy absorption due to an increase of the sympathetic tone.As discussed in the Chapter V, neuronal CB1 signalling is a key determinant of the ECSaction on energy balance, by exerting a bimodal control of feeding behaviour and byregulating energy expenditure and sympathetic nervous system activity. The differencesbetween the role of endogenous versus exogenous CB1 agonists, as well as between agonistsversus antagonists suggest that this receptor may have different pharmacological propertiesaccording to the cell type-specific signalling involved.

Los trastornos emocionales de tipo depresivo y la ansiedad son las formas más prevalentes de enfermedad mental y suponen un serio problema de salud en la sociedad occidental. Recientemente, se ha postulado que el sistema endocannabinoide pueda ser un importante sustrato en el desarrollo de estos trastornos dada su participación en el control de las emociones. Nuestros resultados demuestran que los animales carentes del receptor cannabinoide CB1 manifiestan un fenotipo de tipo depresivo asociado a una deficiencia del factor neurotrófico BDNF en el hipocampo, que podría estar causada por los elevados niveles de glucocorticoides liberados en respuesta al estrés en estos mutantes. Por otra parte, el sistema endocannabinoide participa en los efectos inducidos por la nicotina sobre la ansiedad y en la expresión del síndrome de abstinencia de esta droga. Así, la actividad del receptor CB1 alivia los efectos ansiogénicos de dosis elevadas de nicotina y facilita los efectos ansiolíticos de dosis bajas. Además, la administración del agonista cannabinoide 9-THC atenúa las manifestaciones somáticas y emocionales negativas de la abstinencia de nicotina. En general, considerando los resultados presentados en esta Tesis Doctoral, podemos afirmar que el receptor CB1 participa de forma determinante en la recuperación del balance homeostático del organismo tras la exposición a un estímulo emocional negativo, bien sea una situación estresante aguda o sostenida, o bien una droga que incrementa los niveles de ansiedad o cuya retirada produce abstinencia. / Mood disorders such as depression and anxiety are the most common mental diseases and they suppose a serious health problem in our society. Recently, endocannabinoid system has been postulated to be an important substrate in the development of such disorders taking into account the role exerted by this neuromodulatory system in mood and emotions. Our results demonstrate that CB1 knockout mice exhibit a depressive-like phenotype associated to a deficiency in the neurotrophic factor BDNF in the hippocampus, which could be a consequence of the increased glucocorticoid release in response to stress exposure. On the other hand, the endocannabinoid system participates in nicotine induced effects on anxiety and in the expression of nicotine withdrawal. Thus, CB1 receptor activity attenuates anxiogenic-like effects and facilitates anxiolytic-like responses induced by high or low doses of nicotine, respectively. Moreover, 9-THC administration ameliorates somatic and negative motivational signs of nicotine withdrawal. In summary, the results presented in this Doctoral Thesis indicate that CB1 receptor participates in the recovery of the homeostatic balance after the exposure to negative emotional stimuli, either acute or sustained stress or a drug which induced anxiety-like effects or withdrawal signs after the end of the exposure.

La prise volontaire de nicotine augmente l'excitabilité de la voie ILCx-BNST, entraînant une hyperactivité des neurones DA de l’ATV. Dans une première partie, l'objectif était d’étudier les neuroadaptations de la voie ILCx-BNST induites par l'auto-administration intraveineuse (AAIV) de nicotine. Les récepteurs cannabinoides CB1 contrôlent les propriétés renforçantes de la nicotine. Par conséquent, nous avons examiné le rôle des récepteurs CB1 du BNST. Nous montrons que l'acquisition de l’AAIV de nicotine est associée à une facilitation persistante de l'induction d’une potentialisation à long terme (LTP) CB1-dépendantes des synapses ILCx-BNST. La stimulation électrique du ILCx favorise également la persistance du comportement de recherche de nicotine pendant les périodes où la drogue n'est pas disponible. En outre, en utilisant la pharmacologie intra-BNST, nous montrons que la stimulation des récepteurs CB1 du BNST au cours de l’acquisition de lAAIV augmente la sensibilité aux stimuli associés à la nicotine. L’idée qu’il existe un appétit incontrôlable pour les aliments palatables, en dépit des conséquences négatives. Dans une seconde partie, notre projet a porté sur le rôle des neurones dopaminergiques (DA) de l’ATV dans la perception d’un stimulus aversif chez l’animal exposé au sucrose. Nos résultats indiquent que le sucrose augmente l'activité spontanée des neurones DA de la VTA. En outre, si un choc électrique provoque une inhibition presque complète de l'activité de VTA neurones DA chez les rats témoins, le sucrose perturbe la signalisation d'un stimulus aversif, indépendamment de l’état calorique du rat. / Learning mechanisms associated with active responding for nicotine enhanced the excitability of the ILCx-BNST pathway. The objective of this project was to better understand the involvement of the ILCx-BNST pathway in nicotine self-administration. Since the endocannabinoid system controls nicotine reinforcement and nicotine-induced synaptic modifications, we examined the role of CB1 receptors in the BNST. We showed that acquisition of nicotine IVSA was associated with a persistent facilitation of LTP induction at ILCx-BNST synapses. Behaviorally, electrical stimulation temporarily increased excessive responding to nicotine when nicotine was not available. Moreover, using intra-BNST pharmacology, we revealed that stimulation of BNST CB1 receptors enhanced sensitivity to nicotine-paired cue. In contrast, after a prolonged history of nicotine intake, it blocked drug-seeking in a reinstatement model of relapse. Drug addiction is partly due to the inability to stop using despite negative consequences. The hypothesis that palatable food induces similar uncontrolled consumption is becoming more widespread. As drug addiction is known to increases activity of VTA DA neurons, we aimed to examine whether exposure to sucrose would induce similar neuronal modifications and impair the capacity to respond to an aversive stimulus. We found that sucrose enhanced spontaneous activity of DA VTA neurons. In addition, while a footshock caused a nearly complete inhibition of activity of VTA DA neurons in control rats, sucrose disrupted signaling of an aversive stimulus. These modifications were independent from the caloric state of the rats.