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Co-mentorship / Le cancer de l’ovaire est le cancer gynécologique le plus létal, et cinquième cause de mort attribuable au cancer chez les femmes nord-américaines. La létalité de cette maladie est due notamment à sa détection tardive, à sa forte hétérogénéité, et à sa résistance au traitement. L’amélioration du sort des patientes atteintes du cancer de l’ovaire passera donc par une meilleure caractérisation de la maladie, ce qui inclut la découverte de biomarqueurs et le développement de voies de traitement efficaces. Pour ce faire, des modèles d’étude représentatifs et bien caractérisés sont nécessaires, et la nature hétérogène du cancer de l’ovaire souligne le besoin d’un grand nombre de modèles diversifiés sous plusieurs aspects. Les modèles cellulaires sont une option peu dispendieuse et facile à entretenir, avec lesquels il est possible d’effectuer des expériences à haut débit. La fiabilité des modèles cellulaires se base sur l’abondance et la diversité, où un grand nombre de lignées cellulaires issues de contextes cliniques et moléculaires variés sont requises pour dresser un portrait représentatif de la maladie. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, dix nouveaux modèles de cancer épithélial de l’ovaire, incluant des lignées de deux sous-types rares, sont décrits et caractérisés rigoureusement. Ces modèles sont diversifiés en phénotypes et en génotypes, et sont démontrés comme représentatifs de la maladie de laquelle ils sont issus. Ces nouvelles lignées, s’ajoutant à plusieurs autres dérivées dans notre laboratoire, pourront servir à étudier le cancer de l’ovaire sous plusieurs aspects. Notamment, un nombre de ces lignées ont servi à l’étude de la résistance au traitement aux inhibiteurs de la polymérase de poly(ADP-ribose) (PARP), une voie thérapeutique émergente des dix dernières années. Malgré des études prometteuses, plusieurs patientes ne répondent pas au traitement initial, ou cessent de répondre après une durée de traitement, menant à une rechute. Ces deux phénomènes, dits résistance intrinsèque et résistance acquise respectivement, nuisent grandement à la survie des patientes. À l’aide de lignées cellulaires initialement sensibles, nous avons développés des modèles de résistance acquise aux inhibiteurs de PARP par exposition prolongée. Ces lignées dérivées, en combinaison avec des lignées intrinsèquement résistantes, ont mené à la découverte d’un traitement combiné synergique entre les inhibiteurs de PARP et une autre classe de molécule, les inhibiteurs de la nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransférase (NAMPT). Cette enzyme étant responsable de la synthèse du substrat de PARP, la combinaison de ces deux thérapies éradique de façon efficace les modèles résistants, autant à résistance acquise qu’intrinsèque, et ralentit la croissance tumorale en modèle murin. Les inhibiteurs de PARP étant déjà approuvés, et les inhibiteurs de NAMPT étant déjà en essais cliniques, la combinaison de ces voies thérapeutiques serait facilement envisageable en clinique, et l’universalité de son efficacité pourrait drastiquement améliorer le sort de patientes atteintes du cancer de l’ovaire, n’ayant aucun autre recours efficace. / Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecological cancer, and fifth leading cause of cancer-related deaths in North American women. The lethality of this disease is notably due to its late detection, its strong heterogeneity, and its resistance to treatment. Improving the fate of ovarian cancer patients will require a better characterization of the disease, which includes discovering biomarkers and effective treatment options. To this effect, representative and well characterized study models are required, and the heterogeneous nature of ovarian cancer underlines the need for a vast number of models with diverse characteristics. Cellular models are an inexpensive and easy to maintain option, with which high throughput experiments are possible. The reliability of cellular models depends on their abundance and diversity, where a large number of cell lines from various clinical and molecular contexts are required to accurately represent the disease. In the context of this thesis, ten new models of epithelial ovarian cancer, including cell lines of two rare subtypes, are described and rigorously characterized. These models are diverse in phenotype and genotype, and are shown to accurately represent the disease from which they are derived. These new cell lines, in addition to many others described in our laboratory, will serve to better study ovarian cancer and its many facets. Notably, a number of these cell lines were used to study resistance to poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor treatment, an emerging therapy of the past ten years. Despite encouraging studies, a number of patients do not respond initially, or cease to respond after a length of treatment, leading to relapse. These two phenomena, dubbed intrinsic and acquired resistance respectively, greatly hinder patient survival. Using initially sensitive cell lines, we developed models of acquired PARP inhibitor resistance by prolonged exposure. These derived cell lines, along with intrinsically resistant cell lines, served to discover a synergistic combination treatment between PARP inhibitors and another class of drugs, nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) inhibitors. NAMPT as an enzyme is mainly responsible for synthesizing PARP’s substrate, and the combination of these two therapies effectively inhibits models of both intrinsic and acquired resistance, and slows tumor growth in mice. PARP inhibitors are already routinely used in the clinic, and NAMPT inhibitors are currently undergoing clinical trials, making this combination of therapeutic options easily conceivable for clinical use in the future, and the universality of its efficacy could drastically improve the fate of ovarian cancer patients who are out of options.

<p dir="ltr">Cancer biological mechanisms are a vastly researched area in the field, yet they are not well understood in the various contexts in which cancer is found. Cancerous tumors often exist in harsh, stressful environments for normal cells, but cancer cells can thrive in these conditions. The tumor microenvironment (TME) typically has low oxygen levels (hypoxia), high acidity, and low nutrition. Exposure to the TME leads to many metabolic changes in the cells, enabling cancer to continue proliferating and migrating. However, these metabolic changes are not well understood, especially at the single-cell level. The ability to monitor cells in real time to determine the physical characteristics they undergo is critical to understanding the impact of these metabolic changes. Conventional methods focus on determining the genomic and proteomic changes in large numbers of cells, which may be overlooked if the changes are homogeneous across samples. In this work, we demonstrate the power of using multiple imaging techniques in combination with biochemical methods to visualize metabolic changes and determine the causes in various cancer cells under extreme hypoxia conditions.</p><p dir="ltr">The changes in the microtubule network that occur under hypoxia at the single-cell level are not widely researched. The use of confocal fluorescence microscopy can determine microtubule polymerization in conjunction with eGFP-transfected EB3, a protein that assists in microtubule polymerization. We have determined that hypoxic HeLa cells produce finger-like protrusions when exposed to hypoxia that help with cell migration and, ultimately, cancer cell metastasis. The formation of these protrusions is facilitated by localized mitochondria activities in the protrusions.</p><p dir="ltr">The metabolic changes in lipid droplets (LDs) under hypoxia at the single-cell level remain an elusive topic. The use of stimulated Raman spectroscopy (SRS) and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) can determine the quantity and spatial-temporal distribution of LDs in cancer cells. We have found that LDs redistribute to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and increase in intensity in hypoxic MIA PaCa-2 and A549 cells. Time-lapse CARS microscopy revealed a release-accumulate process of these LDs on ER in hypoxia. We also studied the impact of carbon sources on LD formation and found that MIA PaCa2 cells prefer direct lipid uptake while glucose is also essential to reduce lipotoxicity. The use of hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering (hSRS) also reveals that the content of the LDs changes to include less cholesteryl ester and a decrease in lipid saturation level.</p><p dir="ltr">Collectively, these findings shed new light on the understanding of cytoskeleton dynamics and lipid metabolism in hypoxic conditions. The discoveries made within this research would lead to better treatment strategies for effective treatment of hypoxia-resistant cancer cells.</p>

Das Nijmegen-Breakage-Syndrom (NBS) ist ein autosomal-rezessiv vererbtes Chromosomenbruchsyndrom, dem in > 90% der Patienten eine 5bp-Deletion im Nbs1-Gen zugrundeliegt. Klinisches Hauptmerkmal ist ein stark erhöhtes Krebsrisiko, insbesondere für B-Zell-Lymphome. Bereits bekannt ist die Funktion des entsprechenden Genprodukts, Nibrin, bei den für die Krebsprävention wichtigen Mechanismen der DNA-Reparatur und der Zellzykluskontrolle. Daneben spielt die Apoptose eine essentielle Rolle bei der Krebsentstehung. Zu untersuchen ob Nibrin auch hier Funktionen übernimmt war Gegenstand dieser Arbeit. Eine Störung der Apoptose könnte dabei mitverantwortlich für das hohe Krebsrisiko der NBS-Patienten sein. Kern der Arbeit war die Untersuchung von NBS-B-Lymphozyten hinsichtlich ihrer Fähigkeit, nach einer DNA-Schädigung die Apoptose zu induzieren. Hierzu wurde in den entsprechenden Zellen mittels Bleomycin der Apoptoseprozess ausgelöst und die prozentualen Apoptoseraten durchflusszytometrisch bestimmt. Die Mehrheit der NBS-Zelllinien zeigte eine Störung in der Apoptoseinduktion im Sinne signifikant verminderter Apoptoseraten. Dies weist auf eine Funktion des Nibrins bei der Induktion der Apoptose hin. Andere NBS-Zelllinien zeigten normale Apoptoseindices. Dies könnte auf dem individuellen genetischen Hintergrund der Zellen beruhen, der auch für die erhebliche klinische Variabilität des Krankheitsbildes verantwortlich ist. Eine Korrelation der Apoptoseraten mit der Krebsinzidenz zeigte, dass alle Patienten mit reduzierten Apoptoseraten bereits Lymphome entwickelt hatten, während Patienten mit normalen Apoptoseindices bisher keine Lymphome aufwiesen. Möglicherweise gibt es also generell zwei Gruppen von NBS-Patienten - Patienten mit höherem und mit niedrigerem Entartungsrisiko, wobei eine verminderte Apoptoseinduktion als Risikofaktor für Krebs angesehen werden könnte. / The human genetic disorder, Nijmegen-Breakage-Syndrome (NBS), is characterised by an in increased risk for cancer, particularly B-cell-lymphoma. The Nbs1-gene codes for a protein, Nibrin, involved in the processing/repair of DNA double strand breaks and in cell cycle checkpoints - mechanisms relevant for cancer-prevention. As a third mechanism, apoptosis is important in preventing cancer. To evaluate whether Nibrin plays a role in this process was the aim of this study. Failure of apoptosis-induction could be another factor responsible for the high cancer risk in NBS. For this purpose we examined a set of NBS-B-cell-lines for their capacitiy to enter into apoptosis after a DNA-damaging treatment with Bleomycin. The majority of NBS-cell-lines showed a deficiency in apoptosis-induction. This may indicate a function of Nibrin in mechanisms of apoptosis-regulation. Some NBS-cell-lines showed a proficient apoptotic response, though. The reason may be found in the variable genetic background of the cell lines, also responsible for the high clinical variability of the disease. Correlation of apoptosis rates with cancer incidence showed that all patients deficient in apoptosis had already developed B-cell-lymphoma, whereas patients with normal rates had not developed lymphoma so far. Possibly there are two groups of NBS-patients- patients with higher and with lower risk of malignancy, with reduced apoptotic rates being a risk-factor for the development of cancer in NBS.

Auf die Entwicklung der Hochdurchsatz-Sequenzierung (HTS) folgte eine Reihe von speziellen Erweiterungen, die erlauben verschiedene zellbiologischer Aspekte wie Genexpression, DNA-Methylierung, etc. zu messen. Die Analyse dieser Daten erfordert die Entwicklung von Algorithmen, die einzelne Experimenteberücksichtigen oder mehrere Datenquellen gleichzeitig in betracht nehmen. Der letztere Ansatz bietet besondere Vorteile bei Analyse von einzelligen RNA-Sequenzierung (scRNA-seq) Experimenten welche von besonders hohem technischen Rauschen, etwa durch den Verlust an Molekülen durch die Behandlung geringer Ausgangsmengen, gekennzeichnet sind. Um diese experimentellen Defizite auszugleichen, habe ich eine Methode namens netSmooth entwickelt, welche die scRNA-seq-Daten entrascht und fehlende Werte mittels Netzwerkdiffusion über ein Gennetzwerk imputiert. Das Gennetzwerk reflektiert dabei erwartete Koexpressionsmuster von Genen. Unter Verwendung eines Gennetzwerks, das aus Protein-Protein-Interaktionen aufgebaut ist, zeige ich, dass netSmooth anderen hochmodernen scRNA-Seq-Imputationsmethoden bei der Identifizierung von Blutzelltypen in der Hämatopoese, zur Aufklärung von Zeitreihendaten unter Verwendung eines embryonalen Entwicklungsdatensatzes und für die Identifizierung von Tumoren der Herkunft für scRNA-Seq von Glioblastomen überlegen ist. netSmooth hat einen freien Parameter, die Diffusionsdistanz, welche durch datengesteuerte Metriken optimiert werden kann. So kann netSmooth auch dann eingesetzt werden, wenn der optimale Diffusionsabstand nicht explizit mit Hilfe von externen Referenzdaten optimiert werden kann. Eine integrierte Analyse ist auch relevant wenn multi-omics Daten von mehrerer Omics-Protokolle auf den gleichen biologischen Proben erhoben wurden. Hierbei erklärt jeder einzelne dieser Datensätze nur einen Teil des zellulären Systems, während die gemeinsame Analyse ein vollständigeres Bild ergibt. Ich entwickelte eine Methode namens maui, um eine latente Faktordarstellungen von multiomics Daten zu finden. / The development of high throughput sequencing (HTS) was followed by a swarm of protocols utilizing HTS to measure different molecular aspects such as gene expression (transcriptome), DNA methylation (methylome) and more. This opened opportunities for developments of data analysis algorithms and procedures that consider data produced by different experiments. Considering data from seemingly unrelated experiments is particularly beneficial for Single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). scRNA-seq produces particularly noisy data, due to loss of nucleic acids when handling the small amounts in single cells, and various technical biases. To address these challenges, I developed a method called netSmooth, which de-noises and imputes scRNA-seq data by applying network diffusion over a gene network which encodes expectations of co-expression patterns. The gene network is constructed from other experimental data. Using a gene network constructed from protein-protein interactions, I show that netSmooth outperforms other state-of-the-art scRNA-seq imputation methods at the identification of blood cell types in hematopoiesis, as well as elucidation of time series data in an embryonic development dataset, and identification of tumor of origin for scRNA-seq of glioblastomas. netSmooth has a free parameter, the diffusion distance, which I show can be selected using data-driven metrics. Thus, netSmooth may be used even in cases when the diffusion distance cannot be optimized explicitly using ground-truth labels. Another task which requires in-tandem analysis of data from different experiments arises when different omics protocols are applied to the same biological samples. Analyzing such multiomics data in an integrated fashion, rather than each data type (RNA-seq, DNA-seq, etc.) on its own, is benefitial, as each omics experiment only elucidates part of an integrated cellular system. The simultaneous analysis may reveal a comprehensive view.

Le système de différenciation entre le « soi » et le « non-soi » des vertébrés permet la détection et le rejet de pathogènes et de cellules allogéniques. Il requiert la surveillance de petits peptides présentés à la surface cellulaire par les molécules du complexe majeur d’histocompatibilité de classe I (CMH I). Les molécules du CMH I sont des hétérodimères composés par une chaîne lourde encodée par des gènes du CMH et une chaîne légère encodée par le gène β2-microglobuline. L’ensemble des peptides est appelé l’immunopeptidome du CMH I. Nous avons utilisé des approches en biologie de systèmes pour définir la composition et l’origine cellulaire de l’immunopeptidome du CMH I présenté par des cellules B lymphoblastoïdes dérivés de deux pairs de fratries avec un CMH I identique. Nous avons découvert que l’immunopeptidome du CMH I est spécifique à l’individu et au type cellulaire, qu’il dérive préférentiellement de transcrits abondants, est enrichi en transcrits possédant d’éléments de reconnaissance par les petits ARNs, mais qu’il ne montre aucun biais ni vers les régions génétiques invariables ni vers les régions polymorphiques. Nous avons également développé une nouvelle méthode qui combine la spectrométrie de masse, le séquençage de nouvelle génération et la bioinformatique pour l’identification à grand échelle de peptides du CMH I, dont ceux résultants de polymorphismes nucléotidiques simples non-synonymes (PNS-ns), appelés antigènes mineurs d’histocompatibilité (AMHs), qui sont les cibles de réponses allo-immunitaires. La comparaison de l’origine génomique de l’immunopeptidome de soeurs avec un CMH I identique a révélé que 0,5% des PNS-ns étaient représentés dans l’immunopeptidome et que 0,3% des peptides du CMH I seraient immunogéniques envers une des deux soeurs. En résumé, nous avons découvert des nouveaux facteurs qui modèlent l’immunopeptidome du CMH I et nous présentons une nouvelle stratégie pour l’indentification de ces peptides, laquelle pourrait accélérer énormément le développement d’immunothérapies ciblant les AMHs. / The self/nonself discrimination system of vertebrates allows detection and rejection of pathogens and allogeneic cells. It requires the surveillance of short peptides presented by major histocompatibility class I (MHC I) molecules on the cell surface. MHC I molecules are heterodimers that consist of a heavy chain produced by MHC genes and a light chain encoded by the β2-microglobulin gene. The peptides presented by MHC I molecules are collectively referred to as the MHC I immunopeptidome. We employed systems biology approaches to define the composition and cellular origin of the self MHC I immunopeptidome presented by B lymphoblastoid cells derived from two pairs of MHC-identical siblings. We found that the MHC I immunopeptidome is subject- and cell-specific, derives preferentially from abundant transcripts, is enriched in transcripts bearing microRNA response elements and shows no bias toward invariant vs. polymorphic genomic sequences. We also developed a novel personalized approach combining mass-spectrometry, next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics for high-throughput identification of MHC I peptides including those caused by nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (ns-SNPs), termed minor histocompatibility antigens (MiHAs), which are the targets of allo-immune responses. Comparison of the genomic landscape of the immunopeptidome of MHC-identical siblings revealed that 0.5% of ns-SNPs were represented in the immunopeptidome and that 0.3% of the MHC I-peptide repertoire would be immunogenic for one of the siblings. We discovered new factors that shape the self MHC I immunopeptidome and present a novel strategy for the identification of MHC I-associated peptides that could greatly accelerate the development of MiHA-targeted immunotherapy.

A biodiversidade de plantas brasileiras é uma fonte muito rica de moléculas bioativas, dentro da proposta da busca por novas drogas antitumorais, avaliamos neste estudo o potencial antiproliferativo do composto 7-epi-clusianona. Foram utilizadas duas linhagens celulares derivadas de tumor de mama humana, Hs 578T e MCF-7, cultivadas em monocamada e como esferoides. O IC50 após 48 horas de tratamento das células é de 20 &mu;M para Hs 578T e 6 &mu;M para MCF-7. A análise do ciclo celular mostrou que o composto é capaz de reter as células em fase G1/G0 em ambas as linhagens em 2D, mas não em 3D. O composto é capaz de induzir as células a senescência celular, como mostrado pelo ensaio de detecção de &beta;-galactosidase. Esses dados indicam que o composto 7-epi-clusianona é uma molécula promissora, que demonstrou potencial antitumoral em células de tumor de mama. A cultura tridimensional se mostrou mais resistente ao tratamento com 7-epi-clusianona, portanto estudos mais abrangentes são necessários para melhor entendimento dos efeitos do composto sobre esse tipo de cultura. / Brazilian flora is considered one of the most diverse in the world and natural products are some of the important sources of new antitumoral compounds. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antiproliferative potential of 7-epi-clusianone. Two cell lines derived from human breast tumor were used, Hs 578T and MCF-7, cultured in monolayer and as spheroids. The IC50 after 48 hours of treatment is 20 &mu;M to Hs 578T cells and 6 &mu;M to MCF-7 cells. Cell cycle analysis showed induction of cell cycle arrest in G1/S phase in cells cultured in monolayers, but not in spheroids. The amount of cells in senescence after the treatment with 7-epi-clusianone is higher than the control group, as seen by the senescence &beta;-galactosidase staining assay. These data suggest that 7-epi-clusianone is a promising molecule against breast cancer cells. We show that 3D culture was more resistant to treatment than 2D culture, therefore more comprehensive studies are needed to better understand the effects of 7-epi-clusianone on this kind of culture.

Linhagens celulares humanas têm atraído grande interesse devido a sua capacidade de glicosilar proteínas de maneira mais semelhante às proteínas nativas humanas, reduzindo o potencial de respostas imunológicas contra epítopos não humanos. No entanto, por se tratar de uma aplicação recente, essas células ainda não foram extensamente caracterizadas e cultivadas em condições reprodutíveis da escala industrial, ou seja, em suspensão e em meios de cultura livres de soro fetal bovino (SFB). Em função disso, o objetivo principal deste trabalho foi estabelecer culturas livres de SFB e em suspensão para as linhagens celulares humanas SK-Hep-1, HepG2 e HKB-11, que têm despertado grande interesse devido ao potencial de produção de proteínas recombinantes. Para isso, quatro formulações comerciais livres de SFB foram avaliadas. As células que apresentaram bons resultados na adaptação aos meios realizada em garrafas estáticas foram então adaptadas para crescimento em suspensão. Foi possível realizar a adaptação satisfatória da célula HKB-11 ao meio FreeStyle e da célula SK-Hep-1 ao meio SFMII bem como a criopreservação das mesmas também em condições livres de SFB. A caracterização cinética das células adaptadas mostrou que a célula HKB-11 apresentou concentração celular quatro vezes superior a da célula SK-Hep-1 (8,6x106 e 1,9x106 células/mL, respectivamente) e apresentou crescimento celular durante 18 dias em cultura. A velocidade específica de crescimento máxima (?max) foi semelhante nas duas células (0,0159 h-1 para a HKB-11 e 0,0186 h-1 para SK-Hep-1). A limitação do crescimento das células adaptadas não parece estar associada à exaustão de glicose e glutamina, tampouco à formação de lactato em concentrações inibitórias. Todavia, para ambos os casos, foi observada produção de amônia em concentrações consideradas inibitórias (2 - 5 mM). De maneira geral, foi possível estabelecer culturas celulares em condições compatíveis com o desenvolvimento de um bioprocesso reprodutível, seguro e em concordância com as boas práticas de fabricação. / Human cell lines have attracted great interest since they are capable of producing glycosylated proteins in a more similar way to native human proteins, reducing the potential for immune responses against non-human epitopes. However, these human cell lines have not been extensively characterized and cultured in large scale and in serum-free suspension conditions. As a result, the main objective of this work was to adapt three human cell lines: SK-Hep-1, HepG2 and HKB-11 to serum-free suspension cultures, since they are promising systems of recombinant protein expression. For this task, four commercial serum-free media were tested. Adapted cell lines in T-flasks were further adapted to suspension cultures. Results showed that both HKB-11 and SK-Hep-1 were adapted to serum-free suspension cultures in FreeStyle and SFMII, respectively and were cryopreservated in serum-free formulations. Kinetic characterization showed that HKB-11 cell concentration was four times higher than SK-Hep-1 cell (8,6x106 and 1,9x106 cells/ml, respectively) and showed cell growth in culture over 18 days. The maximum specific growth rate (?max) was similar for both cell lines (0,0159 h-1 to HKB-11 and 0,0186h-1 to SK-Hep-1). Growth limitation of adapted human cell lines does not seem to be associated with depletion of glucose and glutamine, nor with the formation of lactate in inhibitory concentrations. However, in both cases, ammonia production achieved inhibitory concentrations (2 - 5 mM). In general, it was possible to establish human cell cultures that are compatible with reproducible and safe bioprocess conditions and in compliance with good manufacturing practices.

O desenvolvimento e invasão de tumores cerebrais primários são diretamente influenciados pela matriz extracelular. Considerando que lisil oxidase (LOX) e os demais membros da família das lisil oxidases (LOXL1, LOXL2, LOXL3 e LOXL4) apresentam complexidade tanto estrutural quanto funcional e estão envolvidos em processos biológicos vitais, como motilidade celular, sinalização celular e regulação gênica, a desregulação da expressão destas proteínas pode levar à gênese e progressão tumoral. O presente trabalho teve como objetivos avaliar os níveis de expressão dos genes que codificam todos os membros da família das lisil oxidases em astrocitomas de diferentes graus de malignidade e correlacionar com a expressão de BMP1 e HIF1A, mutação de IDH1 e tempo de sobrevida total dos pacientes. Adicionalmente, as expressões das proteínas codificadas por estes genes foram também realizadas, além de um estudo funcional in vitro do papel de LOX em astrocitomas. A análise da expressão dos genes foi realizada por PCR quantitativa em tempo real numa série de 153 astrocitomas e 22 amostras de tecido cerebral não neoplásico. A expressão proteica foi conduzida por imuno-histoquímica em amostras de astrocitomas. O silenciamento da expressão de LOX foi realizado em linhagens celulares de glioblastoma humano U87MG e A172 transfectadas com o siRNA para os ensaios funcionais. A expressão de todos os genes (LOX, LOXL1, LOXL2, LOXL3, LOXL4, BMP1 e HIF1A) aumentou com o grau de malignidade dos astrocitomas, com maiores níveis nos casos de glioblastoma. Foi encontrada uma correlação positiva nos valores de expressão dos genes principalmente nos glioblastomas. Somente a expressão de LOXL3 teve um impacto na sobrevida dos casos com GBM. Pacientes com maior expressão apresentaram maior sobrevida em relação aos com menor expressão de LOXL3. Os casos de astrocitoma grau II com mutação de IDH1 apresentaram menor expressão de LOXL1 e de LOXL4 quando comparados com os casos sem mutação. Os casos de GBM com mutação de IDH1, por sua vez, apresentaram menores níveis de expressão de LOX e de LOXL1 do que os casos sem IDH1 mutado. Os níveis de expressão das proteínas da família das lisil oxidases também estavam maiores nas amostras de glioblastoma, com localização nuclear e citoplamastica das células, além de marcação do endotélio. Interessantemente, um caso de glioblastoma com mutação de IDH1 apresentou menor expressão de LOX, inclusive nas células endoteliais. Nas análises funcionais, o silenciamento de LOX por siRNA e o tratamento com o inibidor BAPN das linhagens celulares U87MG e A172 afetaram a capacidade de migração. Além sito, a menor expressão de LOX afetou a capacidade de invasão e crescimento independente de ancoragem das células. Em conjunto, esses resultados corroboram o papel de LOX em processo importantes da tumorigênese dos astrocitomas. Adicionalmente, a expressão de LOX é influenciada pelo status de mutação de IDH1. Portanto, este trabalho fornece novas informações para as possíveis intervenções terapêuticas para o tratamento dos pacientes com astrocitomas / The development and invasion of primary brain tumors are directly influenced by the extracellular matrix. Considering that lysyl oxidase (LOX) and other lysyl oxidase family members (LOXL1, LOXL2, LOXL3 e LOXL4) have both structural and functional complexity and that they are involved in vital biological processes such as cell motility, cell signaling and gene regulation, a deregulation of these proteins can lead to the genesis and tumor progression. This study aimed to evaluate the expression levels of genes that code for the lysyl oxidase family members in astrocytomas of different malignant grades and to correlate to the expression of BMP1 and HIF1A, IDH1 mutation and overall patients\' survival. Moreover, protein expression coded by these genes was also analyzed, besides an in vitro functional study of LOX role in astrocytomas. Gene expression analysis was performed by quantitative real-time PCR in a series of 153 astrocytomas and 22 samples of non-neoplastic brain. Protein expression was analyzed by immunohistochemistry in astrocytoma samples. LOX knockdown was performed in cells of human glioblastoma U87MG and A172 transfected with siRNA. Expression levels of all genes (LOX, LOXL1, LOXL2, LOXL3, LOXL4, BMP1 e HIF1A) increased with the malignant grade of astrocytomas, glioblastomas presenting the higher levels. Positive correlations of gene expression values were observed specially in glioblastomas. Only LOXL3 expression impacted in the overall survival of glioblastoma cases. Patients with higher expression presented longer survival time than those with lower LOXL3 expression. Astrocytoma grade II cases with IDH1 mutation presented lower LOXL1 and LOXL4 expression when compared to those cases with wild type IDH1. On the other hand, GBM cases with IDH1-mutated presented lower LOX and LOXL1 expression than GBM cases without IDH1 mutation. Protein expression levels of lysyl oxidase family members were also higher in glioblastoma samples, with both nuclear and cytoplasmic localization, and also endothelium staining. Interestingly, a glioblastoma case with IDH1-mutated had lower LOX expression, including endothelial cells. For functional analysis, LOX knockdown by siRNA and treatment with inhibitor BAPN of U87MG and A172 cell lines affected migration behavior. Furthermore, lower LOX expression affected invasion capacity and anchorage independent growth. Altogether, these results corroborate LOX role in important processes of astrocytoma tumorigenesis. Additionally, LOX expression is influenced by IDH1 mutational status in glioblastomas. Therefore, our work provides new insights for possible therapeutic interventions for patients with astrocytomas

The phosphatidylinositol 3' kinase (PI3K) pathway is involved in many cellular processes including cell proliferation, survival, and glucose transport, and is implicated in various disease states such as cancer and diabetes. Though there have been numerous studies dissecting the role of PI3K signaling in different cell types and disease models, the mechanism by which PI3K signaling regulates embryonic stem (ES) cell fate remains unclear. It is believed that in addition to proliferation and tumorigenicity, PI3K activity might also be important for self-renewal of ES cells. Paling et al. (2004) reported that the inhibition of PI3K led to a reduction in the ability of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) to maintain self-renewal causing cells to differentiate. Studies in our lab have revealed that ES cells completely lacking GSK-3 remain undifferentiated compared to wildtype ES cells. GSK-3 is negatively regulated by PI3K suggesting that PI3K may play a vital role in maintaining pluripotency in ES cells through GSK-3. By using a modified Flp recombinase system, we expressed activated alleles of PDK-1 and PKB to create stable, isogenic ES cell lines to further study the role of the PI3K signaling pathway in stem cell fate determination. In vitro characterization of the transgenic cell lines revealed a strong tendency towards maintenance of pluripotency, and this phenotype was found to be independent of canonical Wnt signal transduction. To assess growth and differentiation capacity in vivo, the ES cell lines were grown as subcutaneous teratomas. The constitutively active PDK-1 and PKB ES cell lines were able to form all three germ layers when grown in this manner – in contrast to ES cells engineered to lack GSK-3. The resulting PI3K pathway activated cells exhibited a higher growth rate which resulted in large teratomas. In summary, PI3K signaling is sufficient to maintain self-renewal and survival of stem cells. Since this pathway is frequently mutationally activated in cancers, its effect on suppressing differentiation may contribute to its oncogenicity.