Globalization has led to English being the leading language of communication providing opportunities for pupils to develop their English proficiency in different contexts. In this study, teachers’ language choices in the EFL classroom are being observed and the reasons behind them are being discussed during the following interviews. The study aims to increase our understanding of what role the English language as the primary teaching language should have in the EFL classroom at Swedish lower secondary schools to benefit pupils’ language learning in the best way possible. Four teachers, that are teaching at two different lower-secondary schools in southern Sweden participated in the study. In total four classroom observations were conducted followed by four semi-structured teacher interviews. The results found during observations and interviews were then connected to the theories of Language Mode, Translanguaging and Codeswitching. The results of the observations showed a slight difference in the use of English and Swedish during teaching. This study concludes that there is a slight variation in what role the English language has in the four observed classrooms. However, the contexts in which it was used were all coherent. Furthermore, the use of Swedish also showed a slight variation but was explained to be used as a tool for explaining, clarifying and ensuring understanding. Finally, the use of translanguaging practices was believed to have a positive effect on pupils’ learning outcomes although a slight difference was shown here as well.

EFL classrooms in Sweden are multilingual spaces which consist of a wide range of learners with different backgrounds; constantly forcing teachers to adapt their practices to what they believe will be most beneficial for the students’ learning outcomes. This study focuses on teachers' language practices in EFL classrooms in lower secondary education. The study will present if English teacher practices involve translanguaging patterns or not through classroom observations. The observed practices will be examined and compared with additional data from post-observation interviews to gain context and the teachers’ beliefs to the observed practices. The study aims to map and increase our understanding of teachers' language practices in the EFL classroom, focusing on the perspectives of the teachers. Three different teachers were observed at two different schools in Stockholm, working with students in grades 7 and 9. Field notes and results showed that the observed practices were mainly English only and connected to “English as a base language” + Swedish. Only one teacher translanguaged but all teachers were aware and conscious of their teaching choices and their impact on students’ learning outcomes. Two out of three teachers could imagine incorporating translanguaging patterns in their teaching, while the third teacher believed in an English only approach with ultimate language immersion for proficiency development. The study showed that there is a slight difference in the role of the English language in the observed classrooms, which was expected since the syllabus (Lgr22) neither encourages nor prohibits the use of Swedish when teaching English; so naturally the different teachers use their linguistic resources differently. However, all teachers proclaimed to be aware and have conscious thoughts behind their teaching decisions and they all emphasised on “being understood” as the most important aspect. Lastly, it was revealed that students mirror the teachers' linguistic behaviour even if the teacher specifically tells them not to.

Syftet med studien är att studera lärares roll i den muntliga interaktionen i ämnet svenska i årskurs två. Utifrån syftet besvaras två frågeställningar som knyts samman med de sociokulturella begreppen stöttning och mediering, nämligen hur lärarna stöttar elevernas muntliga interaktion och vilka medierande redskap som används i klassrummen. Studien bygger på sex observationer i årskurs två som tar sin grund i ett redan färdigställt observationsschema som ger verktyg att observera muntliga interaktioner och lärmiljö utifrån 25 olika faktorer, varav 14 faktorer redovisas och analyseras i studien. Resultatet analyseras med hjälp av ett ramverk inom den sociokulturella teorin som innefattar begreppen stöttning och mediering. Resultatet av studien visar faktorernas förekomst i de observerade klassrummen utifrån hur vanliga de är. Resultatet visar att lärarna främjar interaktionen i klassrummet genom att exempelvis ställa öppna frågor, använda sig av rekvisita för att stärka språkliga yttranden samt bekräftar elevernas yttranden. Under alla observationer använder sig även lärarna av muntliga övningar i både par och mindre grupper. Utifrån resultatet framkom det dock att flertalet lärare inte använder sig av flera av de metoder som tidigare forskning visat vara främjande för elevernas muntlighet, exempelvis använder de sig inte tillräckligt av ett långsamt taltempo eller av pausering och de agerar inte heller som språkliga förebilder i önskad grad. En slutsats som kan dras av resultatet är att lärare bör skapa ytterligare medvetenhet om vilka metoder och strategier som bör finnas med i undervisningen för att främja den muntliga interaktionen i klassrummet.

Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka vilka möjligheter till lärarinitierad muntlig interaktion som ges eleverna i två klasser i årskurs 5 och 6 samt att pröva ett tidigare utvecklat observationsverktyg. För att uppfylla studiens syfte användes systematiska observationer som utfördes under totalt fyra lärtillfällen. Till hjälp användes observationsverktyget som innehåller 44 faktorer, fördelade i kategorierna lärmiljö, lärtillfälle och interaktioner. Resultatet som analyseras utifrån ett sociokulturellt perspektiv visar att de observerade lärmiljöerna, lärtillfällena och lärarledda interaktionerna ger eleverna goda förutsättningar till utvecklande av muntliga interaktioner men även att observationsverktyget som användes kan behöva en anpassning om det ska lämpa sig optimalt för observationer på mellanstadiet.

Today’s research, as well as current Swedish governance documents, stress the high importance of developing students’ abstract, individual and critical thinking in mathematics education. The needs for such quality thinking however stand in stark contrast to the ‘traditional mathematics education’, which cannot be expected to develop such thinking. This study suggests an evolutionary instead of revolutionary approach in leaving the old paradigm of ‘traditional education’ behind, since project support for such a transformation project is claimed to be lacking on central level while the feasibility of such a paradigm shift on individual (teacher or even school) level is claimed to be very low in today’s time-pressured reality. By investigating teacher actions which generate occurrences of activated, exposed and elicited student thinking, this study purports to suggest alternative ways forward. A series of semi-structured classroom observations, complemented with questionnaires and interviews, has therefore been carried out of 18 mathematics teachers in upper secondary level in Sweden. The study is based on empowerment theory (as well as an adaptation from the industry of an applied empowerment model), a triangulation mixed-method design was adopted and a thematic analysis, underpinned by a latent theoretical approach from an epistemologically constructionist perspective as described by Braun and Clarke (2006), was used. The study identified several occurrences of the aforementioned student thinking, as well as their corresponding teacher actions and proposes a way for organizing the actions as well as their outcome into an overarching model. / Dagens forskning och samtliga svenska styrdokument betonar den stora vikten av att inom matematikundervisningen utveckla det abstrakta, individuella och kritiska tänkandet hoseleverna. Behoven av sådant ”kvalitetstänkande” står dock i kraftig kontrast till ”traditionell matematikundervisning”, som inte kan förväntas utveckla sådant tänkande. Denna studie föreslår ett evolutionärt, istället för revolutionärt, angreppssätt för att lämna det gamla paradigmet, eftersom projektstöd för ett sådant transformationsprojekt saknas på central nivå och genomförbarheten för ett paradigmskifte på individuell (lärar- eller t.o.m. skol-) nivå hävdas vara låg i dagens tidspressade verklighet. Genom att studera lärarhandlingar som genererar förekomster av aktiverat, exponerat och stimulerat elevtänkande, menar denna studie att hitta alternativa vägar framåt. En serie semistrukturerade klassrumsobservationer, kompletterade med enkäter och intervjuer, har därför genomförts hos 18 matematiklärare på gymnasiet i Sverige. Studien är baserad på empowerment-teori (tillsammans med en industriell tillämpning av en empowerment-modell), en blandad metoddesign (triangulation mixed-method) samt en tematisk analys kännetecknad av ett latent-teoretiskt angreppssätt och av ett epistemologiskt konstruktionistiskt perspektiv enligt Braun och Clarke (2006). Studien identifierade flera förekomster av ovannämnda elevtänkande, likväl som motsvarande lärarhandlingar, och föreslår ett sätt att strukturera både handlingar och deras resultat i en övergripande modell.

Previous studies have shown that teachers and students using English as the medium of instruction (EMI) in science classrooms encounter many language challenges with teaching and learning processes. Problems include the limited English communication skills of science teachers, the lack of EMI training for science teachers, the students' different language abilities and science teachers' beliefs that they are not responsible for addressing students' language needs in science. Teachers' lack of language awareness has led to poor teaching practices and limited interactions in the classrooms. This lack of language awareness, in turn, suggests that there are limited opportunities for students to learn English as a second language in the science classroom. This study extends the research on EMI classroom interactions in Hong Kong (Lo and Macaro, 2012) to the previously unexamined context of senior secondary science classrooms. A total of 19 teachers and 545 students from grades 10 and 11 EMI science class were recruited in Hong Kong from 'early-full EMI' schools (full EMI instruction from grades 7 to 12) and 'late-partial EMI' schools (Chinese medium from grades 7 to 9 and partial EMI instruction from grades 10 to 12). The project used multiple sources of qualitative data (i.e. semi-structured interviews and 33 videotaped classroom observations) to explore the similarities and differences in classroom interactions during the first and second years of the senior science curriculum (grades 10 and 11) in the two types of EMI schools. This project also investigated these science teachers' and students' perceptions of EMI teaching and learning processes, their preference of instructional language and their beliefs about teaching and learning in the EMI environment. Interviews also probed teachers' language awareness, teachers' and students' belief about EMI, students' self-concepts in science (students' perceptions or beliefs about their ability to do well in science, see Wilkins, 2004)) and their perceptions of language challenges and coping strategies in EMI classrooms. The results from the observational data show similar interactional patterns in both early-full and late-partial EMI science classrooms when measured as percentages of interaction time, distribution of time between teacher and student talk and frequency of pedagogical functions. However, the nature of the interactions is different. In late-partial EMI schools, overall, there are more (but shorter) student initiations and responses, more use of higher-order questions from the teachers but less direct feedback to students. Both teachers and students tend to use their L1 more. In both types of schools, there was less interaction time and a lower maximum length of student turns and more L1 use in grade 11 than in grade 10. The discourse analysis of the four biology lesson transcripts also shows that both early-full and late-partial EMI students predominantly produced incomplete sentences consisting of short, technical nouns or noun phrases referring to scientific items. Science teachers rarely made any attempts to correct their students' language mistakes, nor did they encourage students to produce a complete sentence. This lack of teacher feedback on students' L2 language production perhaps reflects the fact that EMI science teachers rarely provide comprehensible input to facilitate students' L2 language learning. These findings suggest the important role of the teacher's modified input in teacher-student interaction in developing students' content knowledge and language skills. The adoption of EMI appears to lead to the development of students' comprehension of content knowledge more than development of their language production skills. As a result of their language shortfalls, the students' L2 productive skills remain under-developed despite English instruction. This lack of language support by teachers appears to indicate a gap between the aims of the EMI policy and its implementation. The interview and questionnaire data show that the science teachers from both the early-full and late-partial EMI schools held many of the same views about their EMI teaching experiences, but they differed in their attitudes towards the value of English language skills and their language awareness. The early-full EMI teachers believed English language skills were important and these early-full teachers have a higher language awareness than the late-partial EMI science teachers. Students from both types of schools also held similar views about their EMI learning, indicating that they welcome the adoption of EMI instruction. However, while the late-partial EMI students see EMI as an opportunity to improve their English, those in the early-full EMI schools believe that EMI discouraged them from learning. By providing an evidence-based, pedagogically focused analysis of teacher and student classroom interactions and their perceptions, this research sheds light on ways to improve the quality of instructional practices in different EMI classrooms in Hong Kong and in similar contexts around the world.

This study was designed to provide information on the reading instructional practices of 36 first grade teachers in nine schools that serve predominantly Spanish-speaking and ELL students in a southeastern U.S. school district. The purpose of this investigation was to describe teaching practices employed during English language arts instruction and to examine their use in relation to instructional grouping strategies, teacher language use, and student engagement. Participating classrooms were observed three times throughout the 2006-07 school year. Data were collected via the Timed Observations of Student Engagement/Language (TO/SEL) classroom observation instrument (Foorman & Schatchneider, 2003). Paired sample t-tests, multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA), and multiple regression analyses were employed to investigate the relationship among the following observed variables: allocation of reading instructional time, grouping strategies, teacher language use and student engagement. Several key findings emerged. Participating teachers spent a greater amount of time on meaning-focused reading instruction (i.e., writing, reading texts, reading comprehension) than on code-focused reading instruction (i.e., word work, spelling, reading fluency, phonemic awareness), both during all four observed grouping strategies and after controlling for individual student seat work. In addition, of five key collapsed instructional variables (word work/spelling, oral language, writing, reading texts, and reading comprehension), teachers spent most time on word work/spelling (19%) and writing (18%). Reading texts and reading comprehension instruction together comprised 26% of total instructional time. Whole class instruction was the grouping strategy of choice among teachers (65% of total observed time); in sharp contrast, teachers spent 11% of observed time engaged in small group instruction, despite research findings supporting the effectiveness of sound grouping instruction. In addition, as little as 1% of teachers' total instructional time was spent in oral language/discussion, and 6% of total instructional time was spent in vocabulary instruction. The results also demonstrated little variation in teacher language use. Thus, evidence of "codeswitching" was not significant. Student engagement was high- 91% of total time students were observed; and was highest during writing and word work/spelling instruction. More longitudinal research is warranted that further explores precisely documented teacher reading instructional practices in relation to student outcomes with culturally and linguistically diverse student populations. Implications for practice include teacher training and professional development on managing small group instruction, and incorporating additional oral language/discussion, vocabulary and meaningful tasks into daily classroom activities.

Thèse par articles / Dans un contexte où les données probantes sont prisées en éducation, cette thèse en didactique du français rappelle la pertinence, pour la recherche et la pratique, de s’intéresser en premier lieu à ce que l’enseignante fait en classe de français. Quelles sont les stratégies pédagogiques utilisées par les enseignantes en classe de français au secondaire québécois qui participent au développement de la compétence scripturale des élèves? Pour répondre à cette question, trois objectifs de recherche spécifiques sont poursuivis dans cette thèse. Chaque objectif fait l’objet d’un article scientifique, qui s’intègre dans un devis séquentiel de méthodes mixtes (Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann et Hanson, 2003). Le premier article vise à identifier les stratégies pédagogiques utilisées en classe de français au secondaire québécois liées à l’écriture de meilleurs textes par les élèves. Il repose sur une analyse secondaire (Dale, 1993) de données collectées à grande échelle au secondaire québécois par le groupe DIEPE (1995) (analyses factorielles exploratoires et régressions multiples à deux niveaux). Le deuxième article vise à identifier les stratégies pédagogiques utilisées en classe de français au secondaire québécois qui, selon le savoir d’expérience (Tardif et Lessard, 1999) des enseignantes, participent particulièrement au développement de la compétence scripturale des élèves. Il repose sur un atelier délibératif (Dogba, Dossa et Dagenais, 2017), lors duquel six enseignantes d’expérience choisissent ensemble des stratégies pédagogiques développant particulièrement la compétence scripturale de leurs élèves. Le troisième article vise à décrire comment peuvent être utilisées en classe de français au secondaire québécois les stratégies pédagogiques retenues consensuellement à l’issue de l’atelier délibératif. Il repose sur l’analyse d’observations directes non participantes menées dans la classe d’une enseignante de français du secondaire québécois au moyen d’un synopsis (Blaser, 2007, 2009; Lord, 2012, 2014; Schneuwly et Dolz, 2009) et d’une grille d’analyse complémentaire qui repose sur les gestes didactiques fondamentaux de l’enseignante (Aeby Daghé et Dolz, 2008; Schneuwly, 2000, 2009; Schneuwly et Dolz, 2009). La mise en relation des résultats des trois articles nous conduit à discuter de leur complémentarité et de celle des méthodes employées ainsi qu’à souligner leurs implications pour la recherche et la pratique. Trois constats se dégagent. 1) Faire écrire les élèves permet aux enseignantes de français du secondaire québécois d’enseigner l’écriture, puisque cela leur permet d’utiliser plusieurs stratégies pédagogiques dans le but de développer la compétence scripturale de leurs élèves. 2) Pour développer la compétence scripturale des élèves, plusieurs stratégies pédagogiques peuvent être utilisées en classe, toutes de façons à la fois singulières et plurielles. Ces stratégies pédagogiques reposeraient toutes sur la mise à disposition de textes, que l’enseignante peut fournir aux élèves ou qu’elle peut leur faire écrire, et sur la mise en évidence des dimensions des objets de savoir à enseigner dans ces textes, bref sur des formes spécifiques des gestes didactiques fondamentaux présentifier et pointer (Schneuwly, 2000, 2009). 3) L’enseignante joue un rôle central pour développer la compétence scripturale des élèves en classe de français au secondaire québécois, par l’étayage et la diversification des stratégies pédagogiques. / In the context of evidence-based education, this thesis in French didactics stresses the relevance, for research and practice, of being primarily interested in what teachers do in French class. What are the pedagogical strategies used in class by French teachers within Quebec secondary schools that participate in developing students’ scriptural competence? To answer this question, three specific research objectives are pursued in this thesis. Each objective is the subject of a scientific article, which are all part of a sequential mixed methods research design (Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann and Hanson, 2003). The first article aims to identify the pedagogical strategies used in French class that relate to the writing of better texts by students in Quebec secondary schools. It is based on a secondary analysis (Dale, 1993) of large-scale data that were collected in Quebec secondary schools by the DIEPE group (1995) (exploratory factor analysis and two-level multiple regressions). The second article aims to identify the pedagogical strategies used in French class within Quebec secondary schools that specifically participate in developing students’ scriptural competence according to the teacher’s experience knowledge (Tardif and Lessard, 1999). It is based on a deliberative workshop (Dogba, Dossa and Dagenais, 2017), during which six experienced teachers together choose pedagogical strategies that specifically develop the scriptural competence of their students. The third article aims to describe how the pedagogical strategies elected at the end of the deliberative workshop can be used in French class within Quebec secondary schools. It is based on the analysis of direct nonparticipant observations that were conducted in the class of a French secondary school teacher in Quebec using a synopsis (Blaser, 2007, 2009; Lord, 2012, 2014; Schneuwly and Dolz, 2009) and a complementary analysis grid based on the teacher's fundamental didactic gestures (Aeby Daghé and Dolz, 2008; Schneuwly, 2000, 2009; Schneuwly and Dolz, 2009). The results of the three articles are then discussed to explore the complementarity of their results and methods, as well as to highlight their implications for research and practice. Three observations emerge. 1) Having students write allows French secondary school teachers in Quebec to teach writing, as it enables them to use several pedagogical strategies to develop their students’ scriptural competence. 2) To develop students’ scriptural competence, several teaching strategies can be used in class, in ways that are all simultaneously singular and plural. These pedagogical strategies may be based on the provision of texts that the teacher can show to students or that she can have them produce, and on highlighting the knowledge objects’ dimensions that ought to be taught in these texts, in short on specific forms of the fundamental didactic gestures of presentifying and pointing (Schneuwly, 2000, 2009). 3) The teacher plays a central role in developing the scriptural competence of students in French class within Quebec secondary schools, by scaffolding and diversifying pedagogical strategies.