Le juge occupe un rôle primordial dans un État démocratique. Les conséquences de ses jugements sont d’autant plus lourdes lorsqu’il est question de reconnaître ou non la culpabilité d’un individu accusé d’un crime violent contre la personne. Pour y parvenir, le juge siégeant en cour criminelle doit uniquement tenir compte des faits et du droit applicable. Malgré sa formation juridique et son obligation de demeurer impartial, il est possible que le juge soit sujet à des biais cognitifs de façon non intentionnelle et que certains facteurs extralégaux influencent son raisonnement. Des études empiriques ont en effet démontré que les juges peuvent présenter des biais cognitifs découlant des heuristiques de représentativité, de disponibilité et d’ancrage ainsi que des idées préconçues. La littérature scientifique révèle aussi que des facteurs extralégaux peuvent avoir un impact significatif sur le verdict et la peine rendus. Néanmoins, les études empiriques portant sur les juges sont peu nombreuses et plusieurs aspects demeurent à explorer. La présente thèse avait deux objectifs exploratoires. D’une part, elle visait à identifier la présence potentielle de sept biais cognitifs pouvant être à l’œuvre dans le processus décisionnel des juges siégeant en matière criminelle (biais de représentativité, biais d’échantillonnage, biais d’attention sélective, biais de rappel sélectif, biais d’ancrage, corrélation illusoire et théorie causale). D’autre part, la thèse avait pour but d’explorer la valeur prédictive de ces sept biais cognitifs ainsi que de seize facteurs sur le verdict et la peine rendus. Les facteurs étudiés concernaient le juge (sexe et expérience professionnelle antérieure), l’accusé (sexe, âge et référence faite aux antécédents criminels et à l’état mental), la victime (sexe, âge, nombre et lien avec l’accusé), le crime (type de crime et utilisation d’une arme) et les moyens de preuve (présence de versions de témoignages contradictoires, preuve matérielle, preuve documentaire et expertise). Pour y parvenir, un échantillon de 200 jugements québécois de première instance en matière de crime violent contre la personne a été analysé. Chaque jugement était rendu par un juge différent au terme d’un procès sans jury. Il était attendu que la majorité des jugements comporte au moins un biais cognitif et que l’ensemble des biais cognitifs et des facteurs extralégaux étudiés permettent de prédire le verdict et la peine. L’analyse des jugements par deux évaluateurs indépendants dans le but d’identifier des biais cognitifs a confirmé la première hypothèse. Les résultats ont révélé la présence d’au moins un biais cognitif dans 66,5 % des jugements de l’échantillon, avec un accord interjuge presque parfait. La seconde hypothèse a toutefois été partiellement confirmée, puisque six prédicteurs significatifs du verdict et de la peine ont été identifiés parmi l’ensemble des biais cognitifs et des facteurs considérés. Une régression logistique multivariée a révélé trois prédicteurs significatifs du verdict de culpabilité : l’utilisation d’une arme lors du crime, le sexe masculin de l’accusé et le recours à une expertise médicale lors du procès. Pour prédire la peine, convertie en pourcentage de la peine maximale pouvant être imposée à l’accusé, une régression multiple a été effectuée. Cette analyse a révélé trois prédicteurs significatifs d’un pourcentage de peine plus élevé, avec une grande taille d’effet : le fait que l’accusé soit mineur, le recours à un expertise d’ADN au procès et le recours à une expertise psychiatrique au procès. Des analyses complémentaires ont également démontré une association significative entre la présence de versions de témoignage contradictoires entre lesquelles le juge devait trancher et la présence de biais cognitifs appuyant un verdict de culpabilité. La présente thèse a permis de confirmer que les juges peuvent être susceptibles de présenter des biais cognitifs et d’être influencés par certains facteurs extralégaux dans le cadre de leur raisonnement. Les résultats obtenus ont également contribué à une meilleure compréhension de la réalité judiciaire au Québec. Néanmoins, l’impact des biais cognitifs sur les jugements rendus demeure un sujet à explorer davantage. / Judges play an essential role in a democratic state. The weight of the consequences of their judgments is even greater when they concern the culpability or innocence of a person accused of a violent offense. A judge sitting in a criminal court of law is therefore required to solely consider facts and applicable law. Regardless of their judicial training and their obligation to remain impartial, it is possible that the judges’ reasoning may be involuntarily influenced by cognitive biases and extralegal factors. Empirical studies have indeed demonstrated that judges can rely on heuristics, such as representativeness, availability, anchoring and preconceived ideas, which can lead to cognitive biases. Scientific literature highlights the significant impact extralegal factors can have on verdicts and sentences. Nevertheless, empirical studies focusing on judges are few, and several aspects remain to be explored. The goal of the present thesis is twofold, and mainly exploratory. First, it aimed to identify seven cognitive biases that may impact criminal judges’ decision-making process (representativeness bias, sampling bias, selective attention bias, selective recall bias, anchoring bias, illusory correlation and causal theory). This thesis’ second objective was to explore the predictive value of these seven cognitive biases and of sixteen factors in terms of rendered verdict and sentence. The studied factors concerned the judge (sex and previous professional experience), the accused (sex, age, reference to criminal history and to mental state), the victim (sex, age, number of victims and relationship to the accused), the offense (type of offense and weapon use) and the evidence (presence of conflicting testimonies, material evidence, documentary evidence, and expertise). To achieve this goal, a sample of 200 verdicts on violent offense were selected from first instance courts in Québec, and then analyzed. Each judgment has been rendered by a different judge after a trial without jury. It was expected that most judgements would present at least one cognitive bias and that the studied cognitive biases and extralegal factors would predict the verdict and sentence. The analysis of judgements by two independant raters aiming to identify cognitive biases has confirmed the first hypothesis. Results revealed the presence of at least one cognitive bias in 66.5% of sample judgements, with a near perfect interrater reliability. However, the second hypothesis was partially confirmed, as six significant predictors of the verdict and sentence have been identified among the cognitive biases and factors studied. A multinomial logistic regression revealed three significant predictors of a guilty verdict: use of a weapon during the crime, male sex of the accused, and use of medical expertise during the trial. To predict the sentence, converted into a percentage of the maximum possible sentence, a multiple regression was performed. This analysis highlighted three significant predictors of a higher sentence percentage: minority age of the accused, use of DNA expertise during the trial, and use of psychiatric expertise during the trial. Results revealed a large effect size. Additional analyses have also pointed towards a significant association between the presence of conflicting testimonies, and the presence of cognitive biases in favor of a guilty verdict. This thesis has confirmed that judges can be susceptible to cognitive biases and the influence of extralegal factors in their reasoning. Results have also contributed to a better understanding of the judicial reality in Québec. Nevertheless, the impact of cognitive biases on rendered judgements remains a question to further explore.

L'une des caractéristiques principales de la méditation de pleine conscience est la réalisation que les événements perçus ou imaginés ne sont pas nécessairement une représentation exacte de la réalité, un processus connu sous le nom de déréification. La déréification est aussi l'objectif de nombreuses approches psychothérapeutiques, puisque l'on sait que l'immersion excessive dans le mental peut être liée à la détresse psychologique et à certains troubles psychiatriques. L'objectif de notre étude était d'évaluer dans quelle mesure la réification des contenus mentaux (réalisme subjectif) contribue aux dispositions automatiques et de comprendre les mécanismes permettant aux pratiques de méditation de les modifier. Notre hypothèse principale était que la reconnaissance du réalisme subjectif grâce aux pratiques méditatives de pleine conscience réduit le biais cognitif. Nous avons mené deux études auprès de méditants novices et expérimentés. Dans la première nous avons exploré l'effet d'une instruction brève de pleine présence sur l'attitude envers la nourriture, pour étudier comment le réalisme subjectif module les tendances automatiques d'approche et d'évitement. La seconde étude nous a permis d'explorer l'impact de la méditation sur la modulation des attentes sémantiques automatiques dans un paradigme de narration. Nous avons adopté une approche neurophénoménologique, combinant des données moléculaires, physiologiques, électroencéphalographiques et comportementales, avec des données à la première personne recueillies à l'aide d'auto-évaluations et d'entretiens qualitatifs. Dans l'ensemble, nos résultats multimodaux ont confirmé notre hypothèse selon laquelle la déréalisation peut entraîner la réduction du biais cognitif. Les résultats de l'exploration phénoménologique indiquent que les participants ont utilisé différentes stratégies cognitives pour réaliser la déréification, et que de telles stratégies varient en fonction de l'expérience en méditation. Les participants novices utilisent plus souvent des stratégies de type réévaluation cognitive et régulation émotionnelle, qui se reflètent dans la modulation des composantes tardives des potentiels évoqués (PE) cérébraux. En revanche les méditants utilisent moins souvent des stratégies élaboratives, en accord avec la modulation de composantes plus précoces des PE. / One of the key features of Mindful meditation is realizing that imagined or perceived events are not necessarily an accurate depiction of reality, a process known as dereification. Dereification is also a target of many psychotherapeutic approaches, as excessive immersion into one's mental contents has been related to psychological distress and several psychiatric conditions. The aim of this study was to investigate to what extent engagement with mental content as being real (i.e. subjective realism) can bias automatic tendencies toward the world, and to elucidate the mechanisms by which meditation practices can modulate it. Our main hypothesis was that recognizing subjective realism during mindfulness-related practices de-automatizes cognitive bias.We ran two studies in naïve and experienced meditators: Firstly, we explored the effect of a brief mindful-attention instruction on a food engagement paradigm to investigate how subjective realism modulates automatic approach-avoidance tendencies. Secondly, we explored whether mindful-attention meditation could modulate automatic semantic expectations in a modified storytelling paradigm. We used a neurophenomenological approach, combining molecular, physiological, electroencephalographic (EEG) and behavioral data, with first-person data collected using self-reports and qualitative interviews.Overall, behavioral, physiological and EEG results supported our hypothesis that derealization can prompt des-automatization of cognitive bias. Neurophenomenological accounts indicate that participants used different cognitive strategies to achieve dereification, and that such strategies vary as a function of meditation expertise, among others. Naïve participants use more often cognitive reappraisal/emotional regulation-type strategies, which are reflected in the modulation of late ERP components. In contrast, meditators used less often elaborative strategies as reflected by the modulation of early sensory ERPs

Cherchant à établir un pont théorique et pratique entre les sciences de l'éducation, les sciences cognitives et la philosophie des sciences, la thèse développe un modèle didactique à l'interface entre ces disciplines : le modèle allostérique de l'apprendre initié et développé par Giordan (1988) et al. (1992), qui s'inscrit dans le paradigme des théories du changement conceptuel. Nourri par les travaux récents des psychologues cognitifs sur les processus d'apprentissage tels que les théories du recyclage neuronal (Dehaene, 2007) ou de l'inhibition cérébrale (Houdé & Tzourio-Mazoyer, 2003), ainsi que sur diverses théories relatives à l'élaboration de la pensée telles que l'économie comportementale (Tversky & Kahnernan, 1982) ou le modèle-cadre SRK (Rasmussen, 1990), ce modèle développe et précise le concept d’allostérie à travers la description et la formalisation des processus de déconstruction-reconstruction des conceptions, qui ont lieu lors des apprentissages complexes. De la phase de théorisation du modèle, effectuée par un recours aux formalismes de la réactivité chimique en accord avec la métaphore initiale de l'allostérie, il est possible de déduire divers environnements didactiques opératoires et féconds pour le praticien de l'enseignement et de la médiation scientifiques. Ces prévisions théoriques sont alors mises à l'épreuve de l'expérimentation didactique à travers une recherche de terrain centrée sur la notion d'expérience contre-intuitive (Eastes & Pellaud, 2004) menée auprès de différents types de publics. / Aiming at bridging education sciences, cognitive sciences and philosophy of science both theoretically and practically, this thesis develops a didactical model at the interface between these fields: the allosteric learning model developed by Giordan (1988) et al. (1992), understood in the context conceptual change theories paradigm. Fueled by the recent works of cognitive psychologists on learning processes such as neuronal recycling (Dehaene, 2007) or cerebral inhibition (Houdé & Tzourio-Mazoyer, 2003), as well as on various theories related to the thought processes such as behavioral economies (Tversky & Kahneman, 1982) or the Skills-Rules-Knowledge framework model (Rasmussen, 1990), this model develops and refines the concept of allostery through the description and formalization of specific processes that take place in complex learning situations : the deconstruction-reconstruction of conceptions. Based on the theorization of the model, done through the use chemical reactivity formalisms in line with the initial metaphor of allostery, it is possible to deduce various operational and fruitful didactical environments for teaching practitioners or science communication professionals. These theoretical projections are then put to the test through didactic experimentation taking the shape of field research on the notion of counter-intuitive experiment (Eastes & Pellaud, 2004) conducted with different types of target groups.

As mentioned in the introduction, the objective of this work has been to get a more realistic understanding of economic decision making processes by adopting an interdisciplinary approach which takes into consideration at the same time economic and psychological issues. The research in particular has been focused on the psychological concept of categorization, which in the standard economic theory has received until now no attention, and on its implications for decision making. The three experimental studies conducted in this work provide empirical evidence that individuals don not behave according to the perfect rationality and maximization assumptions which underly the SEUT, but rather as bounded rational satisfiers who try to simplify the decision problems they face through the process of categorization. The results of the first experimental study, on bilateral integrative negotiation, show that most of the people categorize a continuum of outcomes in two categories (satisfying/not satisfying), and treat all the options within each category as equivalent. This process of categorization leads the negotiators to make suboptimal agreements and to what I call the ?Zone of Agreement Bias? (ZAB). The experimental study on committees? decision making with logrolling provides evidence of how the categorization of outcomes in satisfying/not satisfying can affect the process of coalition formation in multi-issue decisions. In the first experiment, involving 3-issues and 3-parties decisions under majority rule, the categorization of outcomes leads most of the individuals to form suboptimal coalitions and make Pareto-dominated agreements. The second experiment, aimed at comparing the suboptimizing effect of categorization under majority and unanimity rule, shows that the unanimity rule can lead to a much higher rate of optimal agreements than the majority rule. The third experiment, involving 4-issues and 4-parties decisions provides evidence that the results of experiments 1 and 2 hold even when the level of complexity of the decision problem increases.

Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease is encouraged as a first step towards people planning for their future with the condition. Despite the proposed benefits of diagnosis, it is also widely recognised that Alzheimer’s disease can expose people to stigma. Therefore, this thesis explores the relationship between stigma and future outlook, from the perspective of people affected by early and late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. In order to recognise the physicality of the condition and how psychological and social factors influence experiences, a biopsychosocial perspective is employed throughout. People with Alzheimer’s disease (n=15 people with late-onset, 7 people with early-onset) and their supporters (n=22) completed questionnaires about perceived stigma. This was followed by 14 interviews with a subsample of participants, which explored stigma and future outlook in more depth. Perceived stigma reporting across participants was low in the questionnaires; whereas interviews revealed higher levels of stigma with people discussing mixed, unpredictable reactions from a range of sources. Participants expressed awareness of the unpredictable nature of their futures with the condition. The subsequent lack of control was managed through focusing on ‘one day at a time’ and avoiding looking too far ahead. Across reflections on stigma and future outlook there was a deliberate focus on positive experiences for people affected by early and late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. The similar management of experiences across participants minimised possible age-based differences. These findings are supported by socioemotional selectivity theory, which suggests people are motivated to maintain positive emotional states when facing ‘time-limiting’ conditions irrespective of age. The research suggests people’s experiences of stigma and future outlook interact, with stigma-driven assumptions about the future affecting how people manage their daily lives. The avoidance of looking ahead suggests that policy which encourages future planning should consider its utility and explore ways of helping people to manage both exposure to stigma, and planning for the future, whilst focusing on daily living.

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No. of bitstreams: 1 Viviane Monteiro _revisão final_2.pdf: 1249154 bytes, checksum: 00e557d8c4674796cc5f2e0d584a796f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018 / Last year, was watched more scandals evolving a technology giant accused to apply a dishonest practice called Planned Obsolescence, which, according to some consumer’s protection organization would raise its company profits and breach consumer’s rights. Countries as the U.S, Italy and France are fighting against its practice and other reason to its battle is the reduction of electronic waste. But regarding to purchase decision would any company have power enough to make someone buy their product, in this case mobile device, just slowing down its performance? To assess consumer behavior and purchase decision a survey with 358 Brazilians was conducted for four weeks. The main goal was to understand which cognitive biases can drive consumer to perceive planned obsolescence and if its planned obsolescence is a fundamental factor for purchase decision. The participants were divided into control group and treatment group. The control group receives a survey with generic questions and the treatment group received questions that suggested cognitive bias influences as Optimism bias, Present bias and Bandwagon effect. The results of this study show no significant impact related to the planned obsolescence in the classical conception (what has been disclosed by the media in last years) primarily with individuals between 40-60 years, but show a significant impact regarding to perceived psychological obsolescence with individuals younger than 40 years. The actual Brazilian economic scenario can explain the conservative behavior in the older age group. On the other hand, the need of acceptance and feeling of belonging which is one of some characteristics of bandwagon effect phenomena drive the behavior of the younger age group. / No ano passado, foram assistidos escândalos envolvendo uma das maiores empresas do segmento de tecnologia, acusada de aplicar uma prática chamada obsolescência planejada, que, de acordo com organizações de proteção aos consumidores, aumentaria os lucros da empresa e violaria os direitos dos consumidores. Países como os EUA, Itália e França estão lutando contra esta prática por motivos econômicos e de proteção ao meio ambiente. Porém, em relação à decisão de compra, qualquer empresa teria poder suficiente para fazer alguém comprar seu produto, neste caso, um aparelho de telefonia celular, apenas retardando seu desempenho? Para avaliar o comportamento do consumidor e a decisão de compra, uma pesquisa com 358 brasileiros foi realizada durante quatro semanas. O objetivo principal era entender quais vieses cognitivos podem levar o consumidor a perceber a obsolescência planejada e se a obsolescência planejada é um fator fundamental para a decisão de compra. Os participantes foram divididos em grupo controle e grupo tratamento. O grupo de controle recebe uma pesquisa com perguntas genéricas e o grupo de tratamento recebeu perguntas que sugeriram influências de vieses cognitivos como viés de Otimismo, viés de Presente e efeito de Manada. Os resultados deste estudo não mostram nenhum impacto significativo relacionado à obsolescência planejada na concepção clássica (o que foi divulgado pela mídia nos últimos anos), principalmente, com indivíduos entre 40-60 anos, mas mostram um impacto significativo em relação à obsolescência psicológica percebida com indivíduos com menos de 40 anos. O atual cenário econômico brasileiro pode explicar o comportamento conservador na faixa etária mais avançada. Por outro lado, a necessidade de aceitação e o sentimento de pertencimento, que são das características dos fenômenos do efeito manada, impulsionam o comportamento do grupo etário mais jovem.

Börsåret 2020 har varit ett unikt år som präglats av ett kraftigt börsras, men även en historiskt snabb återhämtning. Det unika händelseförloppet härrör ur en pandemi orsakad av ett coronavirus, vilket skapat nya underlag för studier av investerares beslutsfattande ur ett börspsykologiskt perspektiv. Syftet med studien var att kartlägga vilka börspsykologiska faktorer som indikerats hos investerare under pandemin. Intentionen var att undersöka huruvida det förelåg samband mellan börspsykologiska faktorer och investerares beslutsfattande. Studien har främst tillämpat en kvantitativ metod i form av en tvärsnittsdesign för att uppnå generaliserbarhet, men har även inslag av kvalitativ forskningsdesign för att erhålla en djupare förståelse. I syfte att besvara studiens forskningsfrågor har en statistisk analys i form av bivariata och multivariata linjära regressionsanalyser genomförts. Resultatet visar att samtliga undersökta börspsykologiska faktorer indikeras hos investerare och att det existerar ett flertal signifikanta samband mellan faktorerna och investerares beslutsfattande. Vidare har studien uppmärksammat en problematik i investerares självuppfattning och brister i de tillämpade testerna för börspsykologiska faktorer. Slutligen har en modell framtagits i syfte att bistå med underlag som kan öka förståelsen och medvetenheten inom ämnesområdet och således skapa bättre förutsättningar för rationella investeringsbeslut. / The stock market during 2020 has been a remarkable year that has experienced a major marketcrash, but also a historical recovery. The unique course of events derives from a pandemic causedby a coronavirus, which has generated new data for research of investors’ decision making from abehavioral finance perspective. The purpose with the research was to map biases which havebeen indicated by investors during the pandemic. The intention was also to investigate whetherthere were relationships between biases and the decision making of investors. This thesis hasmainly applied a quantitative method in the form of a cross-sectional study to achievegeneralizability, but it also has elements of qualitative research to obtain a deeper understanding.In order to answer the research questions, a statistical analysis in the form of bivariate andmultivariate linear regression models has been applied. The result concludes that all theinvestigated biases were indicated, and several significant relationships between the biases andthe decision making of the investors. Furthermore, the research has shown two problematicaspects. The first is the self-perception of investors and the second is the weaknesses of theapplied tests for biases. Finally, a model has been developed with the aim to contribute withuseful research that can create better conditions for rational investment decisions through anincreased understanding and awareness in the area of behavioral finance.

Abstract There is a broad consensus in the software engineering (SE) research community that understanding system desiderata and design creativity is critical for the success of software projects. This has motivated a plethora of research in SE to improve requirements engineering (RE) processes. However, little research has investigated the relationship between the way desiderata are presented (i.e., framed) and creative design performance. This dissertation, therefore, examines the effects of more formal presentations of desiderata on design creativity. The research was conducted in three phases. The first consisted of summarizing the available literature on cognitive biases in SE to build a comprehensive body of knowledge, understand the current state of research, and identify the relevant literature to position and delineate subsequent investigations involving the framing effect and fixation. This research phase also investigated how creativity is conceptualized (i.e., understood, assessed and improved) in SE by exploring the perceptual differences and similarities between SE researchers and practitioners. In the second phase, two controlled experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of framing desiderata first as requirements (in general) and then as prioritized requirements on design creativity (i.e., the originality and practicality of a design). The third phase involved a protocol study to explore the underlying cognitive mechanisms that may explain why framing desiderata as formal requirements affects creativity. The empirical evidence from the second and third phases was interpreted together to propose a theoretical framework that explains the effect of specification formality on design creativity. While the results of the experiments show that specification formality is negatively related to design creativity (i.e., desiderata framed as requirements or prioritized requirements result in designs that are less creative), the findings from the protocol study indicate that the negative relationship between specification formality and design creativity is mediated by fixation (i.e., more formal presentation of desiderata induces fixation and hinders critical thinking). Overall, the results of this dissertation suggest that more formal and structured presentations of desiderata cause requirements fixation—the tendency to attribute undue confidence and importance to desiderata presented as formal requirements statements—that affects design creativity, and thus undermines software engineering success. / Tiivistelmä Ohjelmistotuotannon tutkijoiden keskuudessa on laaja yksimielisyys järjestelmän tarpeiden ja suunnittelun luovuuden ymmärtämisen kriittisyydestä ohjelmistoprojektien menestyksessä. Tämä on motivoinut monia ohjelmistotuotannon vaatimusmäärittelyprosessien parantamiseen liittyviä tutkimuksia. Harvassa on tarkasteltu tarpeiden esitystavan (eli muotoilun) ja luovan suunnittelun lopputuloksen välistä yhteyttä. Tässä väitöskirjassa tarkastellaan tarpeiden muodollisempien esitystapojen vaikutuksia suunnittelun luovuuteen. Tutkimus oli kolmivaiheinen. Ensin referoitiin ohjelmistotuotannossa kognitiivisiin harhoihin liittyvä kirjallisuus kartoittamaan nykytutkimuksen tila ja merkityksellinen kirjallisuus myöhempien, kehysvaikutuksen ja fiksaation sisältävien tutkimusten sijoittamiseen ja rajaamiseen. Lisäksi tarkasteltiin luovuuden käsitteellistämistä (eli ymmärrettävyyttä, arviointia ja parantamista) tutkimalla katsannollisia eroja ja yhtäläisyyksiä tutkijoiden ja ammattilaisten välillä. Toisessa vaiheessa tehtiin kaksi kontrolloitua koetta tarpeiden muotoilun vaikutuksien tutkimiseksi, ensin vaatimuksina (yleisesti) ja sitten tärkeysjärjestykseen laitettuina vaatimuksina suhteessa suunnittelun luovuuteen (eli omaperäisyyteen ja käytännöllisyyteen). Lopuksi, protokollatutkimuksella selvitettiin taustalla olevia kognitiivisia mekanismeja selittämään syitä muodollisina vaatimuksina esitettyjen tarpeiden vaikutuksista luovuuteen. Toisesta ja kolmannesta vaiheesta saatujen empiiristen aineistojen tulkittiin yhdessä muodostavan teoreettisen viitekehyksen, joka selittää määrittelyn muodollisuuden vaikutusta suunnittelun luovuuteen. Vaikka kokeiden tulokset osoittavat määrittelyjen muodollisuuden vaikuttavan negatiivisesti suunnittelun luovuuteen (eli tarpeiden muotoilu vaatimuksina tai priorisoituina vaatimuksina vähentää suunnitelmien luovuutta), protokollatutkimuksen tulokset viittaavat fiksaation vaikuttavan negatiiviseen yhteyteen määrittelyjen muodollisuuden ja suunnittelun luovuuden välillä (eli tarpeiden muodollisempi esitystapa aiheuttaa fiksaatiota ja vaikeuttaa kriittistä ajattelua). Kaiken kaikkiaan, väitöskirjan tulokset esittävät muodollisempien ja strukturoidumpien tarpeiden esitystapojen aiheuttavan vaatimusten fiksaatiota, taipumusta pitää luottamusta ja tärkeyttä tarpeiden muodollisten vaatimusten ilmaisun ansioina, joka vaikuttaa suunnittelun luovuuteen heikentäen ohjelmistotuotannon menestymisen mahdollisuutta.

Abstract Background: Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for evidence that confirms a person’s preconceptions. Confirmation bias among software testers is their tendency to validate the correct functioning of the program rather than testing it to reveal errors. Psychology literature suggests that time pressure may promote confirmation bias because time pressure impedes analytical processing of the task at hand. Time pressure is perceived negatively for its effects in software engineering (SE), therefore, its effect on confirmation bias may exacerbate software quality. Objective: We aim to examine confirmation bias among software testers. Additionally, we examine the effect of time pressure on confirmation bias and how time pressure affects the testers’ perception of the performance. We also question what other antecedents to confirmation bias exist in software testing and how they lead to it. Method: We first examined the state of the art research on cognitive biases in SE using systematic mapping. Then, we empirically examined the feasibility of using students in further experiments. An experiment with 42 students (novice professionals) investigated the manifestation of confirmation bias and whether time pressure promotes it. Another experiment with 87 novice professionals examined the perception of the performance of software testers under time pressure. A grounded theory study based on the interview-data of 12 practitioners explored other antecedents to confirmation bias in software testing and how they lead to it. Results: Time pressure emerged as a major antecedent to confirmation bias in the grounded theory. Testers prefer to validate the correct functioning of the program under time pressure. However, time pressure could not significantly promote confirmation bias among testers. Software testers significantly manifest confirmation bias irrespective of time pressure. The perception of performance is also sustained irrespective of time pressure. Conclusion: Testers should develop self-awareness of confirmation bias and improve their perception of performance to improve their actual testing. In the industry, automated testing may alleviate confirmation bias due to time pressure by rapidly executing the test suites. / Tiivistelmä Tausta: Vahvistusharha tarkoittaa taipumusta hakea ennakko-odotuksia vahvistavaa todistusaineistoa. Ohjelmistotestaajien vahvistusharha tarkoittaa taipumusta varmistaa ohjelmiston oikea toiminta mieluummin kuin hakea siitä virheitä. Psykologinen tutkimus esittää, että aikataulupaine voi lisätä vahvistusharhaa heikentämällä työn analyyttista tarkastelua. Aikataulupainetta pidetään ohjelmistotekniikan soveltamiseen kielteisesti vaikuttavana asiana, minkä johdosta sen vaikutus vahvistusharhaan voi heikentää ohjelmiston laatua. Tavoite: Tarkastelimme ohjelmistotestaajien vahvistusharhaa tutkimalla aikataulupaineen vaikutusta vahvistusharhaan ja testaajien käsitykseen testauksen tehokkuudesta. Lisäksi kysymme, mitkä muut tekijät johtavat ohjelmistotestauksen vahvistusharhaan, ja millä tavoin. Menetelmä: Ensiksi tarkastelimme ohjelmistotekniikan kognitiivisten harhojen viimeisintä tutkimusta systemaattista kirjallisuuskartoituksella. Sitten tutkimme kokeellisesti, miten yliopisto-opiskelijat soveltuvat käytettäväksi tutkimusjoukkona vahvistusharhan kokeellisessa tutkimuksessa. Kokeellinen tutkimus, johon osallistui 42 opiskelijaa (aloittelevaa ammattilaista), tarkasteli vahvistusharhan lisääntymistä aikataulupaineen vaikutuksesta. Toinen kokeellinen tutkimus, johon osallistui 87 aloittelevaa ammattilaista, tarkasteli ohjelmistotestaajien käsitystä testauksen tehokkuudesta aikataulupaineen alla. Kahdeltatoista ammattilaiselta haastattelemalla kerätystä tutkimusaineistosta tarkasteltiin ankkuroidun teorian menetelmällä muiden mahdollisten tekijöiden vaikutusta vahvistusharhaan. Tulokset: Ankkuroidussa teoriassa aikataulupaine osoittautui merkittäväksi vahvistusharhan tekijäksi. Ammattimaiset ohjelmistotestaajat haluavat mieluummin validoida ohjelmiston oikean toiminnan aikataulupaineessa. Toisessa kokeellisessa tutkimuksessa aikataulupaine ei kuitenkaan lisännyt merkittävästi testaajien vahvistusharhaa, vaan testaajien vahvistusharha ilmeni merkittävästi aikataulupaineista riippumatta. Myös käsitys työn tehokkuudesta säilyi riippumatta aikataulupaineesta. Johtopäätös: Ohjelmistotestaajien on syytä kehittää tietoisuuttaan vahvistusharhasta ja parantaa käsitystään työn tehokkuudesta parantaakseen testaustyötä. Teollisuudessa automaattinen testaus voi lieventää aikataulupaineen aiheuttamaa vahvistusharhaa nopeuttamalla testisarjoja.

L’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’analyser comment les biais cognitifs et émotionnels affectent les décisions des investisseurs lorsqu’ils achètent ou vendent des immeubles de bureaux. Pour atteindre cet objectif, cette recherche adopte, dans un premier temps, une démarche qualitative. Les entretiens semi-structurés permettent de détecter et d’analyser les biais les plus importants qui apparaissent au cours de la transaction. Parmi les différents biais décelés « l’oubli de la fréquence de base » a été sélectionné. Ce biais peut apparaître avant l’acquisition lorsque les investisseurs évaluent la performance attendue d’un immeuble. Une analyse quantitative suit pour développer une échelle qui mesure l’effet du biais. Les résultats ont montré que l’incertitude conduit certains investisseurs à supposer que le rendement qu’ils obtiendront à la fin de leur investissement sera égal à celui du rendement initial. En d’autres termes, certains investisseurs estiment que les conditions du marché resteront les mêmes qu’aujourd’hui / The main objective of this thesis is to analyse how cognitive and emotional biases affect investor decisions when buying or selling office buildings. To meet this aim, this research embarks on a qualitative research. Semi-structured interviews permit to detect and analyse the most important biases that appear in the transactions. Among the different biases discovered, the "base-rate fallacy" was selected. This bias may appear before the acquisition when investors evaluate the expected performance of a building. A quantitative analysis follows to develop a scale that tries to measure the effect of the bias. The results showed that uncertainty leads some investors to assume that the yield they will obtain at the end of their investment will be equal to that of the initial yield. In other words, some investors believe that market conditions will remain the same as today.