Durant des siècles, la religion a été considérée comme une entité extrêmement influente. Lentement et progressivement, les gouvernements ont pris la relève et gagné en puissance. De nos jours, quelques grandes entreprises prennent le relais (Cohen, 1988). Cependant, la recherche montre que les entreprises qui ne gèrent pas leur pouvoir de manière socialement responsable sont sanctionnées par la société (Davis, 1973). Pour cette raison, les PDG sont amenés à faire un usage intelligent et productif de leurs ressources, par le biais de la responsabilité sociale. La RSE est un phénomène important par le moyen duquel les employés acquièrent, par identification à l'entreprise, une identité sociale. Cette identification génère elle-même des comportements de citoyenneté organisationnelle (OCB). Il est nécessaire de procéder à une étude approfondie de ces comportements influencés par la RSE, en tenant compte de l'approche psychologique individualiste ou collectiviste de l'employé. Nous présentons ici un modèle optimal, testé empiriquement. Les résultats de cette recherche suggèrent aux entreprises d'utiliser intelligemment leurs activités opérationnelles pour répondre à un large éventail de besoins. / Ages ago, religion was an entity which was deemed as influentially powerful. Slowly and gradually, governments became the entities even with greater power to influence the circumstances. And now, some big corporations have taken over that power (Cohen, 1988) . Nevertheless, when power comes, along lingers responsibility. Research shows that businesses which do not handle their power in socially responsible manner, the society deprives it of that power (Davis, 1973). For this reason, CEO's now make intelligent use of their resources in order to be productive as well as socially responsible, in short they exhibit Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). CSR is such a powerful phenomenon which enables an employee to derive his/her social identity by identifying with the firm. Employees view their self as a depiction of their firm, when their firm behaves in a socially responsible manner. This resulting identification tends to generate organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). A need resides to conduct an deep study of employee behavior influenced by CSR while considering the individualist or collectivist psychological approach of the employee. This research plays its role in configuring the resulting behavioral patterns generated from the considerate behavior of the firm. We bring forward an optimal model, which is empirically tested. The findings support this research suggesting firms to cleverly utilize its operational activities to meet a broader range of needs.

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Cultures, subcultures, and individuals occupy different positions in the low-context/individualistic and the high-context/collectivistic spectrum, and they shift due to factors such as urbanization, economic development and cultural globalization. In this study, I examine Sérgio Buarque de Holanda's theory of the cordial man and how it illustrates qualities of the high-context Brazilian culture. Within the framework of grounded theory, these qualities are evaluated from the perspective of intergenerational dyads--fathers and sons--that have been exposed to an urbanized and globalized environment in order to determine whether and how a shift from high-context to low-context is occurring. The participants were interviewed to explore perception of self, upbringing, decision-making process within the family, father and son relationships, intrafamilial communication, ways to influence and be influenced, history of conflict, and urbanization and globalization. Their responses revealed the extent to which their values were individualistic or group-oriented and if the cordial man behavior was also present in the intimacy of their homes. In sum, I reach three conclusions: technological and cultural globalization propagates low-context values and behaviors; sons are in a transitional state, in which individual goals are relevant enough to challenge parental expectations, but still cause guilt when pursued; and, the cordial man still exists in the urban and globalized world. Implications for families, family therapists, counselors and mediators are discussed.

Background: Non-medical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD) refers to the use of prescription drugs which are traditionally utilized to manage pain or treat psychiatric problems but without a doctor’s prescription. In 2010, an investigation by the Substance Use and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) revealed that 5.3% of young adults (18 to 25-year-olds) in the United States reported past-month NMUPD. NMUPD has become a growing concern owing to associations with consequences such as college dropout, poor academic achievement, and health jeopardizing behaviors. College students' NMUPD has been well documented in the United States. Limited studies, however, have been conducted among college students in China. The purposes of this study are to examine the prevalence and motives of NMUPD among college students in China, and to assess its relationship with stress (i.e., perceived stress and traumatic events), mental health problems (depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)), utilization of healthcare, cultural orientation, and protective factors (i.e., resilience and future orientation). Methods: In Jan-April 2017, online data were collected using SONA system from a total of 720 undergraduates at Beijing Normal University (BNU) and University of Macau (UM) with an average age of 19.65. All participants reported their nonmedical use of prescription drugs (i.e., opioids, sedatives, stimulants, and anxiolytics) in their lifetime and the past three months, stress, mental health, utilization of healthcare, cultural orientation, and protective factors. Spearman’s rank-order corrections and logistic regression were employed for statistical analyses. Results: Findings indicate that 41.2% of Chinese students reported taking prescription drugs without a doctor’s prescription. The most commonly misused prescription drugs were opioids (40.5% lifetime use, 31.8% past-three-months use), followed by sedatives (1.8% lifetime, 0.8% past 3 months), anxiolytics (0.9% lifetime,0 .3% past three months), and stimulants (0.2% lifetime, 0% past three months). Bivariate analyses suggest significantly positive correlations of lifetime NMUPD with mental health problems (anxiety and PTSD), cultural orientation (individualism and collectivism), and utilization of healthcare (frequency of healthcare use, time spent for healthcare, and money spent for healthcare). Similar results were found in terms of past-three-month NMUPD. The results of logistic regressions indicate the significant association of lifetime NMUPD with individualism of cultural orientation, and frequency of healthcare use. Specially, individualism, frequency of healthcare use, and time spent for healthcare were found to be associated with lifetime opioid misuse, and depression was significantly associated with sedative misuse. Resilience was negatively associated with lifetime sedative misuse. Frequency of healthcare use was also found to be positively associated with past-three-month opioid misuse. Conclusion: Utilization of healthcare, cultural orientation, and mental health problems appear to be the factors associated with NMUPD among college students at BNU and UM. More discussion is needed in Chinese society about regulation of prescription drug use. Future culturally-tailored prevention intervention programs may be beneficial to reduce the risk of NMUPD among Chinese college students.

本研究不將個人主義與集體主義視為單一向度的兩極端，而從多向度的觀點，兼顧學者們談論個人取向及集體取向時所涵蓋的正面及負面意義，以釐清個人取向、集體取向與心理健康的複雜關係，並探討那些態度相互補充之後，對心理健康有最正面的影響。 　　本研究以政大、台大、文化、高雄醫學院、台南師範學院等五所大學的學生共454人為樣本，運用自編的個人取向量表、集體取向量表、心理健康量表及馬康二氏社會讚許性量表等研究工具搜集所需資料，再以典型相關分析、多元逐步迴歸分析、淨相關、共變數分析、變異數分析等方法進行統計分析。 　　研究結果發現：個人取向與集體取向不僅只有對立的關係，亦有不排斥而能互補的關係。若將個人取向視為孤立的意義，則與心理健康有負相關，若將個人取向視為獨立自主與自我表達的意義，則與心理健康有正相關。若將集體取向視為他人導向的意義，亦與心理健康有負相關，但若將集體取向視為家族認同與人際和諧的意義，則與心理健康有正相關。當一個人能夠同時具有個人取向和集體取向的優點時，其心理健康程度最佳。 　　本研究建議：將個人取向與集體取向視為多元化的觀點是可行的研究方向。學校教育中宜提供民主的溝通氣氛，提供不同的論點，協助學生澄清自己的價值觀，在溝通過程中尋求共識，促使學生發展出具有自主性又能認同群體的統整式人生觀，以利學生的心理健康。

This study investigated how Work-Family Conflict was related to Role Salience and Job level (investigated in terms of the amount of job demand and job control associated with different job levels) among women from a Collectivistic culture. A sample of 65 teachers was used. Although the results of the study showed no correlations between Work-Family Conflict and both role salience and job level, this was attributed to the high data skewness, thereby reducing the chances of detecting correlations. The high positive data skewness was possibly caused by the floor effect, which was the situation that the sample consisted of only female teachers from a Collectivistic culture. The high negative data skewness was possibly caused by the ceiling effect, which is the situation that the women in this sample have a Collectivistic cultural orientation, and are therefore highly likely to consider their home role as more salient. Moreover, correlations between Work Family Conflict and Job demand have been found to be higher in Individualistic cultures compared to Collectivistic cultures. There also seems to be no differences in job control among teachers occupying different job levels, and hence, no correlations were detected. Further analyses depicted that the teachers within this sample considered their home role as more salient. Moreover, despite their commitment to both their home role and occupational role, the data indicated that the sample experienced low levels of Work Family conflict.

Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur socialt arbete i en internationell kontext formas efter kulturer och hur detta kommer till uttryck. Vidare ämnar studien ta reda på hur socialarbetare själva ger uttryck för kulturell kompetens samt vilka element som gagnar respektive försvårar det internationella sociala arbetet. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats där semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med fyra kvinnliga respondenter. Databearbetningen gjordes genom tematisering där tre huvudteman framkom, kulturell anpassning, kulturell kompetens och svårigheter, möjligheter och dilemman. I resultatet framkommer att samtliga respondenter ger uttryck för en kulturell anpassning i det internationella sociala arbetet. Detta urskiljs genom att respondenterna uppmärksammar de fungerande kulturella strukturerna, bygger arbetet kring detta och lägger stor vikt vid inhemsk kunskap. Det arbetssätt och den främsta framstående faktor vilken underbygger en kulturell anpassning är empowerment. Vidare ger även samtliga respondenter uttryck för kulturell kompetens genom att visa en medvetenhet kring den egna kulturens påverkan, genom synen på den egna kunskapens giltighet samt genom den vikt respondenterna satte vid att skapa relationer. Studien visar den kulturella anpassningens beroende av socialarbetares kulturella kompetens. Vidare visar resultatet hur den kollektivistiska samhällsstrukturen kan ses som både ett hjälpmedel och som försvårande element. Genus, etik och moral tycks vara de faktorer som främst ställer socialarbetare i svåra situationer och har visat sig frambringa ett arbetssätt som kännetecknas av att verka utan att synas. Relationer visar sig vara en underlättande faktor, men även här framkommer en baksida. Relationen tycks nödvändig på grund av den bristande tillit individer har inför internationella socialarbetare. / The purpose of this study is to examine how social work in an international context is formed by cultures and how this is expressed. Furthermore, the study aims to explore culture competence as is expressed within the social workers themselves and which elements that benefit or alternatively hinder, the international social work. The study has a qualitative approach where semi-structured interviews were conducted with four female respondents. The analyzing method chosen to process data was thematization, where three main themes emerged, indigenization/cultural adaption, cultural competence and difficulties, opportunities and dilemmas. The result shows that all respondents express an indigenization process while describing their work. This is distinguished by the attention all the respondents gave to the functioning cultural structures and how they built the work around this. It also showed through the great emphasis the respondent put on indigenous knowledge. The approach and the main prominent factor which underpins an indigenization process is empowerment. The results show that all respondents express cultural competence. This is observed through the respondents awareness of their own culture's influence, through the respondents evaluation and validation of their own personal knowledge and by the expressed importance of creating relationships. The study shows that an indigenization process is dependent on social workers' cultural competence. Furthermore, the result shows that the collectivist social structure can be seen as both an aid and as an aggravating element. Gender, ethics and morality seem to be the main factors which place social workers in difficult situations. This has also been shown to produce a work approach that is characterized by acting without being seen. Relationships prove to be a facilitating factor, but it is not grown for all good reasons, it seem to be necessary because of the lack of trust people have for international social workers.

This thesis consists of two studies together with a preliminary study, focusing on the issue of ingroup representation of the &uuml / lk&uuml / c&uuml / group. The first study, addressing the problems of stereotype content, stereotype accuracy, and stereotype consensus, was based on in-depth interviewing with twenty members of the &uuml / lk&uuml / c&uuml / group. It was hypothesized that the group members, when their social identities were salient, would locate the ingroup within a chronic way of looking at the world, namely the perceived context. The accuracy of stereotypes and the stereotype consensus commonly observed among group members depended upon the efficiency of this perceived context as an explanation. Moreover, the favorability of stereotype content also derived heavily from this perceived context. The second study, based on two hundreds &uuml / lk&uuml / c&uuml / group members, examined the effects of target group (ingroup, close outgroup, distant outgroup), type of attributes (favorable, unfavorable), comparative context (intragroup, intergroup with close outgroup, intergroup with distant outgroup, multigroup), and level of identification with the ingroup (high-identifiers, low-identifiers) on the perceptions of homogeneity. A number of hypotheses were tested and the following results were found: First, group members perceived the ingroup as more positively homogeneous than both the close and the distant outgroup. Moreover, the close outgroup was perceived as more positively homogeneous than the distant outgroup. In fact, the distant outgroup was perceived as negatively homogeneous. Second, group members perceived both the ingroup and the close outgroup as more positively homogeneous in terms of unfavorable attributes than in terms of favorable ones. On the contrary, they tended to perceive the distant outgroup as more negatively homogeneous in terms of favorable attributes than in terms of unfavorable ones. Third, the above perceptions were less accentuated in the intragroup context, while they were more accentuated in the multigroup context. Fourth, the above perceptions were more accentuated for the high-identifiers than for the low-identifiers. Apart from these main effects, a number of complicated interactions were also discovered and these results were discussed with reference to the relevant literature.

This thesis was concerned with the branch of Cooperate Social Responsibility known as Cause-Related Marketing, and focused on the moderating effects of cultural orientation and message framing on CRM advertisement effectiveness. The well-established individualist/collectivist cultural domain was employed through application to Taiwanese and Canadian cultural contexts. With regards to framing, differences between altruistically and egoistically framed messages were explored. It was hypothesized that members of collectivist societies would have increased positive attitudes and purchase intentions towards altruistically framed messages, while members of individualistic societies would have more favorable attitudes towards egoistically framed messages. The primary rationale cited was cultural congruency between the participants and the messages. An experimental design was performed, making use of real world style simulated print advertisement copies, as well as pre and post exposure questionnaires. Overall, the two-way interaction between cultural orientation and message framing was upheld, albeit with interesting and notable secondary results. Although the collectivist orientation was correlated with higher altruistic tendencies and as a result higher overall attitudes towards the CRM advertisements presented, this did not translate into higher overall purchase intentions. Potential reasons discussed included the relatively hedonic nature of the product used in the experiment, which could explain the higher overall purchase intentions of the individualistically oriented participants, based on affect-based complementary theory. As well, the increased level of past exposure to and familiarity with CRM campaigns of the individualist group was considered as a possible covariate factor. This was the first study to explicitly relate CRM advertisement attitude to a crosscultural framework through message framing, thereby offering significant theoretical contributions to the social marketing literature. Managerial implications have been stressed throughout, with the findings of clear relevance to the marketer interested in launching CRM campaigns internationally.

The dissertation consists of an introduction and three empirical articles. The introduction gives the theoretical background, integrates the three articles, and elaborates on future research questions. The first article investigates the important decision in the lives of German and Indian university students to identify the important areas of decision making. The second article examines the structure of real life decision making and reveals the underlying factors of five major decision areas. The third article investigates the similarities and differences on decision making between German and Indian students using prior qualitative findings in a large quantitative survey.