Need is a concept that carries intuitive appeal in moral decision-making. As it stands, need is relatively under-theorised, given its currency not just in philosophical argumentation but in news coverage, charitable appeals, and political practice. Need claims carry compelling normative force, and they are amenable to widespread support as our most basic needs are some of the things we most transparently share with our fellow human beings. However, how should we understand that normative force? Is need best understood to compel us as a matter of justice? I begin my account by considering the kind of need relevant to the project. I build from an understanding of need as a three-place relation, which is by its nature needing for a purpose. I suggest that morally important needs are those which aim at the objective interests that all people have in virtue of what is good for each of us qua human beings ('non-arbitrary needs'). Further, I distinguish the existentially urgent subset of those non-arbitrary needs as 'basic needs.' Given this understanding, I consider how basic needs theory relates to its conceptual neighbours. I focus on capabilities as the nearest neighbours, but also comment on wants, interests, and rights. I judge that the theories developed by Martha Nussbaum (capabilities) and Len Doyal and Ian Gough (needs) benefit from a complementary reading, with each supplementing the other. I then draw from Amartya Sen's early writings on capabilities to ultimately see capabilities and needs as two sides of the same coin. This helps to situate needs theory in relation to a mainstream branch of political theory more generally, and indicates that we can recognise the special significance of needs without eschewing other morally important categories. I then move to establish a scope of justice that allows us to distinguish between duties of justice and other moral duties. If we think that duties of beneficence are weak and optional, whereas duties of justice are binding and enforceable, a great deal rides on how we characterise our duties to the global poor. I offer a 'moral enforceability' account, claiming that duties of justice are those which are, in principle, morally enforceable. It is the in-principle enforceability of justice duties which gives them teeth. Returning to need, I then ask how another's need comes to give me a moral reason for action. I canvas a range of existing accounts, many of which furnish important insights. I then propose that it is the morally relevant capacities of the being in need which gives them moral status such that their needing is morally significant. We are morally required to answer this need with responsiveness, as a demonstration of appropriate respect for the sort of being that the human in need is. If this is right, we are morally required to be responsive to need, even if we are not always required to reduce it. Finally, I bring the diverse strands of the foregoing argument together to return to the relationship between need and justice. I consider what a duty of responsiveness might amount to in practice, and suggest that our duties of responsiveness are best thought of as collective duties, grounded in the capacity of the global well-off to contribute. Further, I argue that duties of responsiveness are a matter of justice, as they are the sort of duties that are, in principle, morally enforceable. A wide range of threats to the necessary conditions for human flourishing, and even human life, are on the horizon, and many of these are uniquely collective challenges. The seriousness of those challenges, and the extent to which we have treated our responsibilities to those in need as discretionary in the past, means collective action and problem solving are called for when there are no easy answers.

Acompanhando o desenvolvimento do mercado de capitais brasileiro, a procura pelo seguro de responsabilidade civil de diretores e administradores, cujo principal objetivo é ressarcir as perdas pecuniárias que os administradores venham a sofrer em virtude de reclamações de terceiros, cresceu significativamente nos últimos anos. Se de um lado este seguro mostra-se um importante instrumento de proteção aos administradores diligentes que porventura tenham seu patrimônio afetado para reparação de danos a terceiros prejudicados por seus atos, de outro, ele poderia servir de incentivo aos maus gestores que, amparados pelo seguro, negligenciariam seus deveres e obrigações enquanto administradores, gerando o chamado risco moral (moral hazard). Mediante a análise de hipóteses em que se discute a aplicação do seguro no âmbito da administração das companhias, este trabalho propõe-se a examinar de que forma os múltiplos efeitos resultantes da aplicabilidade ou o do afastamento da aplicabilidade do seguro afetam o comportamento dos administradores, bem como debater a admissibilidade do seguro no direito brasileiro, vis-à-vis os questionamentos relativos às situações que colocam em xeque a viabilidade da cobertura securitária. / Following the development of the Brazilian capital market, the demand for the directors and officers liability insurance (D&O Insurance) whose main purpose is to indemnify pecuniary losses incurred by managers as a result of third-party complaints against them grew considerably in the past few years. On the one hand, the D&O Insurance appears as an important instrument for protection of diligent managers who happen to have their assets affected in order to indemnify damages deriving from their acts; on the other hand, this type of insurance could be seen as an incentive for bad managers, who could neglect their duties and obligations in their capacity as officers based on the protection afforded by the D&O Insurance, therefore increasing the so-named moral hazard. By analyzing the hypothesis in which the applicability of the insurance is questionable, this paper intends to examine how the multiple effects arising from the applicability or the inapplicability of the D&O Insurance affect the managers behavior, as well as to discuss the admissibility of this type of insurance by the Brazilian law, vis-à-vis the situations where the feasibility of the insurance coverage is questionable.

Czech regulation of limited companies from the point of view of the 'law and economics' school Abstract Law and economics has a potential to provide us with an uncommon and to the Czech jurisdiction often neglected point of view on laws. The aim of this paper is to apply economic theories on directors' liability for breach of fiduciary duties and to consider its consequences on the economic efficiency of companies. The critical question is whether not having such liability could provoke an increase of wealth of all stakeholders. The paper also aims to come up with instruments capable of minimizing the lost caused to companies by mandatory rules regarding director's liability. At the end of the thesis, the Czech laws regarding the director's liability for breach of fiduciary duties are analyzed in the point of view of economic analysis. The analysis is followed by proposition of instruments that could make companies operating in Czech legal environment more effective. Directors' liability, which can result in an aversion to make risky decisions, can cause significant losses to companies (so called agency costs). For that reason, the possibility to determine the scope of director's liability given to shareholders can have, in some cases, positive effect on the company's efficiency. The paper concludes that...

Die vorliegende Untersuchung zeigt das ständige Wachstum der Dimension und Bedeutung der staatlichen Schutzpflichten als eine eigenständige Funktion der Grundrechte. Mit jedem Fortschritt und der Entwicklung in der modernen Welt, entstehen in der Gesellschaft immer wieder neue Bereiche, die gesetzlicher Regulierung bedürfen. Daher ist die staatliche Aufgabe eindeutig: Der Staat muss die in der Verfassung ausgelegten Prinzipien in der Realität durch die Gesetze umsetzen und sie ständig wiederkehrend nachbessern. Daher ist der Staat gefordert, die Einzelnen repressiv und präventiv zu schützen. Die Dissertation untersucht die Problematik von staatlichen Schutzpflichten im Rahmen der Grundrechte der georgischen Verfassung vom 24. August 1995 im Vergleich mit den Menschenrechten und Grundfreiheiten der Europäischen Menschenrechtskonvention. Die Arbeit greift ein Grundrechtsproblem auf, das sich gerade in rechtlichen und politischen Umbruchssituationen wie diejenige, die Georgien als Nachfolgestaat der zerbrochenen Sowjetunion durchlebt, als besonders wichtig erweist. Auf dem Weg zur dogmatischen Entfaltung einer grundrechtlichen Schutzpflicht wird als eine Art Leitbild die Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention (EMRK) herangezogen. Dies erklärt sich aus der Natur der EMRK, die sich als eine Art Verfassung für Europa darstellt und in Georgien seit 1999 in Kraft ist. In der Arbeit wird auf die deutsche Schutzpflichtenlehre verwiesen. Das erklärt sich aus der in Deutschland schon seit etwa 30 Jahren geführten Diskussion, die immer noch nicht abgeschlossen ist, aber aus der sich bemerkenswerte und kontroverse Ergebnisse ziehen lassen. Die Arbeit zeigt, dass die georgische Verfassung zahlreiche Ansätze der staatlichen Schutzpflichten – allgemeiner und konkreter Art – liefert, die auch vor allem in der Rechtsprechung des Georgischen Verfassungsgerichts verschiedentlich schon aufgegriffen wurden, durchaus zum Teil unter Rückgriff auf Aussagen der Europäischen Menschenrechtskonvention (EMRK) bzw. des Europäischen Gerichtshofes für Menschenrechte (EGMR). Den Bereich der grundrechtlichen Schutzpflichten der georgischen Verfassung auszuleuchten ist für eine relativ neue Rechtstaatlichkeit eines postsowjetischen Staates wichtig, um den Anstoß für eine dringend nötige Debatte zu geben. / The research clarifies the state responsibilities, as one of the functions of human rights and their everlasting rise and improvement. Every change and progress in modern society causes to create the new spheres and they need the law enforcement regulation. In this case it is obvious how important the state duties are. The state with the law enforcement has to provide the principles of the constitution and has to try improving them gradually. The comparative dissertation method researches the state duty and responsibility problems from Georgian and European human rights conventions. It is clear that European human right convention is the constitution for the whole Europe and among them for Georgia. Here European convention was recognized in 1999. The work leans on German law as a source of literature. It is explained with 30 year discussion about human rights improvement as the most important topic of the law in Germany. From the research it is clearly shown that the constitution which was established in August 24th 1994 describes the state duty with constitutional legislation and this is connected with the justice of European human rights. The importance of this work will obtain the push of discussion in Georgian legislation.

Die vorliegende Untersuchung zeigt das ständige Wachstum der Dimension und Bedeutung der staatlichen Schutzpflichten als eine eigenständige Funktion der Grundrechte. Mit jedem Fortschritt und der Entwicklung in der modernen Welt, entstehen in der Gesellschaft immer wieder neue Bereiche, die gesetzlicher Regulierung bedürfen. Daher ist die staatliche Aufgabe eindeutig: Der Staat muss die in der Verfassung ausgelegten Prinzipien in der Realität durch die Gesetze umsetzen und sie ständig wiederkehrend nachbessern. Daher ist der Staat gefordert, die Einzelnen repressiv und präventiv zu schützen. Die Dissertation untersucht die Problematik von staatlichen Schutzpflichten im Rahmen der Grundrechte der georgischen Verfassung vom 24. August 1995 im Vergleich mit den Menschenrechten und Grundfreiheiten der Europäischen Menschenrechtskonvention. Die Arbeit greift ein Grundrechtsproblem auf, das sich gerade in rechtlichen und politischen Umbruchssituationen wie diejenige, die Georgien als Nachfolgestaat der zerbrochenen Sowjetunion durchlebt, als besonders wichtig erweist. Auf dem Weg zur dogmatischen Entfaltung einer grundrechtlichen Schutzpflicht wird als eine Art Leitbild die Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention (EMRK) herangezogen. Dies erklärt sich aus der Natur der EMRK, die sich als eine Art Verfassung für Europa darstellt und in Georgien seit 1999 in Kraft ist. In der Arbeit wird auf die deutsche Schutzpflichtenlehre verwiesen. Das erklärt sich aus der in Deutschland schon seit etwa 30 Jahren geführten Diskussion, die immer noch nicht abgeschlossen ist, aber aus der sich bemerkenswerte und kontroverse Ergebnisse ziehen lassen. Die Arbeit zeigt, dass die georgische Verfassung zahlreiche Ansätze der staatlichen Schutzpflichten – allgemeiner und konkreter Art – liefert, die auch vor allem in der Rechtsprechung des Georgischen Verfassungsgerichts verschiedentlich schon aufgegriffen wurden, durchaus zum Teil unter Rückgriff auf Aussagen der Europäischen Menschenrechtskonvention (EMRK) bzw. des Europäischen Gerichtshofes für Menschenrechte (EGMR). Den Bereich der grundrechtlichen Schutzpflichten der georgischen Verfassung auszuleuchten ist für eine relativ neue Rechtstaatlichkeit eines postsowjetischen Staates wichtig, um den Anstoß für eine dringend nötige Debatte zu geben. / The research clarifies the state responsibilities, as one of the functions of human rights and their everlasting rise and improvement. Every change and progress in modern society causes to create the new spheres and they need the law enforcement regulation. In this case it is obvious how important the state duties are. The state with the law enforcement has to provide the principles of the constitution and has to try improving them gradually. The comparative dissertation method researches the state duty and responsibility problems from Georgian and European human rights conventions. It is clear that European human right convention is the constitution for the whole Europe and among them for Georgia. Here European convention was recognized in 1999. The work leans on German law as a source of literature. It is explained with 30 year discussion about human rights improvement as the most important topic of the law in Germany. From the research it is clearly shown that the constitution which was established in August 24th 1994 describes the state duty with constitutional legislation and this is connected with the justice of European human rights. The importance of this work will obtain the push of discussion in Georgian legislation.

The scene of dangerous driving (street racing) has been seen in 1986; however, the situation has not been redressed a bit after the long-term prevention by police force. Nevertheless, since the problem of dangerous driving first appeared in 1955 in Japan, by the long-term prevention, the situation has been well redressed and some talented F1 racing drivers have been cultivated. On May, 11th, 2012, a Japanese racing driver, Kamui Kobayashi, took the 5th place in Spanish Grand Prix. Dangerous driving has been banned by force in our nation; yet, the auto racing industry has not been developed in line with modern society. In a long period of time, the prevention of dangerous driving has been ineffective due to the banning manner, instead of venting, that the government adopted, which leads to a huge waste of human power and resources. Police force is the current administrative authority for preventing dangerous driving. The legal basis for police to enforce or exercise its power or right is officially available since the Police Duties Enforcement Act was promulgated on Dec. 12th 2003, followed by the interpretation of Shih-Zih No. 535 made by the Council of Grand Justices. The Police Duties Enforcement Act does not only regulate that the enforcement of police powers should be complied with proportionality by specific manner, but also provides the legal basis for the enforcement of police powers. Human right and police itself are also safeguarded. Nevertheless, whether the enforcement of the Act can redress dangerous driving, or weather it can represent that dangerous driving can be corrected only by police is worth discussing in this study. Dangerous driving has been a troublesome problem to Kaohsiung City. By this study, I found out that banning dangerous driving by strict force affects little to the prevention of it. Through the analysis of the five major frameworks of administrative law, I suggest that the government should not regard dangerous driving as a pure event of public disorder, but a social phenomenon. Except for banning illegal dangerous driving, the central government should take the advantage of the situation to allow local self-governing to promote auto-racing industry. The government should also play the role of leading and changing the illegal and dangerous driving to the legal auto racing game with reasonable and effective management, and to set a managing mechanism in terms of the platform for modified parts. Through this manner, the government can not only benefit from taxing, but also control dangerous deriving effectively, which leads to a win-win situation for both of the government and its people.

ABSTRACT This thesis approaches the concept of citizenship from the angle of citizens by focusing on the citizenship perception of the citizens in Turkey. It has been aimed to measure citizenship perceptions in terms of the balance between both total rights and duties, and also in terms of civil, political and social elements of citizenship. Liberal and civic republican conceptions of citizenship have been employed as the ideal-standard models against which it is attempted to measure the citizenship perceptions, because it is consensually agreed that the Turkish notion of citizenship is based on a civic republican understanding which emphasizes duties over rights. For this purpose a scale for citizenship rights and another one for citizenship duties have been developed on the basis of a questionnaire. Additionally, in order to measure people&rsquo / s opinions concerning the possible effects of Turkey&rsquo / s EU membership on citizenship issues a scale of &ldquo / EU membership and citizenship&rdquo / has been developed. In addition to the questionnaire study which was applied to unionized workers, employers, bureaucrats and retired military officers, focus group meetings and interviews were conducted. The results of the scale study revealed that all occupational groups shared a republican perception of citizenship as far as the total right and duty items are considered. However, in terms of political and social elements of citizenship, occupational groups displayed different perceptions. In terms of political elements, while workers, employers and bureaucrats emphasized the political rights, with respect to social elements workers assigned more weight to social rights. The EU membership and citizenship scale results indicated that all occupational groups shared a pro-EU perspective with respect to its effects on citizenship.

Magistro baigiamajame darbe išanalizuotas teisinis ugdymas bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje, išanalizuotos bei palygintos mokytojų ir mokinių nuomonės apie teisinį ugdymą bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje, pateiktos rekomendacijos kaip gerinti teisinio ugdymo teikimą bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje. Pirmoje darbo dalyje teoriniu aspektu tiriama teisės samprata, jos socialinė paskirtis, funkcijos, žmogaus teisių integracija į ugdymo procesą, vaiko teisių ir pareigų raiška mokykloje. Antroje dalyje nagrinėjama teisinio ugdymo samprata, paskirtis, teisinio ugdymo prielaidos bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje, teisinio ugdymo raiška bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje. Trečiojoje dalyje analizuojama bei palyginama mokinių ir mokytojų nuomonė apie teisinį ugdymą bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje. / There is analyzed rightful education in general school in master ending work. Here is analyzed and compared opinion of teachers and children about right education in general school too. In this work is presented recommendations, how to improve teaching right education in general school. In the first part of work is researching conception of right in theoretical aspect, social purpose of right, functions, integration of human’s rights to education process, child rights and duties expression in school. In the second part of work is researching conception of right education, its purpose, presumptions of law education in general school, right education expression in general school. In the third part of master work is taken analysis and comparing an opinion of pupils and teachers about right education in general school.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

2011年美國對中國特定產品課徵反傾銷稅和平衡稅一案上訴機構報告發布，該案上訴機構推翻小組判決，於條文無明文規定的情形下判定：若針對「同一」損害同時課徵反傾銷稅和平衡稅，則非「適當」的平衡稅額，構成雙重救濟而有違WTO規範。雖然WTO無先例原則，然為維持機構的穩定性，小組與上訴機構多會參考先前裁決，因此，美國雙反案上訴機構判決將對往後相關議題產生一定影響，值得探究。 小組認為反傾銷協定與SCM協定各有其規範範疇，且會員於此二協定下之義務互不干涉，故除條文明文規定不得針對出口補貼同時課徵反傾銷稅和平衡稅外，同時課徵皆不違反WTO之規定。本文檢視兩協定的發展歷史後，發現雖然其分立是出於歷史上的偶然，但由談判過程可見該二貿易救濟措施具不同的救濟目的和實施方式，故小組立論有其基礎。 接續本文觀察上訴機構論理，以釐清其於條文無據的情況下判定雙重救濟有違WTO規範的原因，而本文發現上訴機構之裁決乃依條約解釋原則所為，並無造法之處，唯其相較於小組更著重會員在WTO涵括協定下義務的累積，是以得出與小組相悖的結論。 最後，本文透過經濟模型和經濟分析檢視雙重救濟於現實中的可能樣態，得出雙重救濟確實不單產生於針對出口補貼同時課徵反傾銷稅和平衡稅的情形。此外，為提供WTO會員往後面臨此議題的參照，本文觀察美國對雙反案之履行，發現進口國交由受調查廠商舉證其是否將補貼反應於售價之做法，確為調查機關同時課徵此二稅收之可行方式。