<p>This thesis work is intended to analyze whether the municipalities has a need for the new technology of mobile mapping.</p><p>Mobile mapping consists of the technologies of laser scanning, photographing and positioning of streets and roads in city environment and in the countryside. When these technologies are operating together a georeferenced three-dimensional image model is created, which has specific coordinates that states its position on the surface of the earth. Thanks to the laser scanning process even measuring can be performed in this model.</p><p>The municipal sector consists of many different departments which use visual spatial information. These departments are an interesting target group for this system. Specific departments within the municipal sector, which we considered were the most suitable, have been selected. Individuals within these departments have replied to a <em>questionnaire</em> where several statements were given. The statements are constructed so that the replies that are received as much as possible describe the need for this new technology. In addition to the <em>questionnaire</em> a number of telephone- and in-depth interviews have been done in purpose of creating a basis which is as solid as possible.</p><p>The results that have been obtained indicate that there is a rather considerable demand for the technology. The majority of the asked professions have given replies which hint that they would appreciate visual measurable spatial information in accurate and detailed 3D-models. The telephone interviews have pointed in this direction as well.</p><p>Since a municipality is organized of a large number of departments which each have a need for the technology, a reference can be made to the expression “many a little makes a mickle”. In other words, the municipal need for the technology is considerable since many different units find their own uses for mobile mapping.</p><p>We have after this investigation obtained a result which implies that mobile mapping would be a good investment for the municipal sector.</p>

<p>Inom Ammenäs området i Uddevalla kommun förekommer det spänningar/skillnader mellan fastigheternas gränspunkter som ligger i kommunens databas, och de gränspunktskoordinater som man får när man mäter med GNSS-utrustning, (detta trots det att båda systemen är i RT90 7.5 gon V).</p><p>Databasens koordinater har tidigare transformerats från Uddevallas lokala system U38, till RT90 7.5 gon V, och i GNSS-utrustningen används också RT90 7.5 gon V.</p><p>För att få ett homogent och överensstämmande koordinatsystem måste dagens stomnät och gränspunkter transformeras om till det system som GNSS-utrustningen använder (RT90 7.5 gon V).</p><p>Jag har provat ett antal olika transformationssamband för att komma fram till vilken metod som ger bäst resultat.</p><p>När det är så stora spänningar som i detta fall är den bästa metoden för att få ett bra resultat, att mäta flera mindre områden och transformera dem var för sig.</p><p>När man har fått fram en acceptabel noggrannhet på gränspunkterna, kan man utföra kommunala mätningsuppdrag med koordinater som kommer från GNSS-utrustningen, vilket var syftet med examensarbetet.</p> / <p>In the Ammenäs area within Uddevalla municipality there are some tensions/deviation between real estate boundaries that lies in the municipality database, and the boundary coordinates that are given from the GNSS-measure equipment, (despite that both systems are in RT90 7.5 gon V).</p><p>The real estate boundaries that lies in the database has previously been translated from Uddevalla local system U38, to RT90 7.5 gon V, and the GNSS-equipment also uses</p><p>RT90 7.5 gon V.</p><p>To get a homogeneous and concordant coordinate system, control points and the real estate boundaries has to be transformed to the system that the GNSS-system uses (RT90 7.5 gon V).</p><p>To get to the best result from a transformation method, I have tried a couple of transformation methods.</p><p>When there are such big tensions as in this case the best way to get to a good result is to transform smaller areas instead of the whole area at once.</p><p>When you have reached an acceptable accuracy in the boundary coordinates you can perform municipality measurement assignments with coordinates from the GNSS-equipment, which was the purpose with this examination.</p>

Missile navigation systems rely on hybrid INS/GPS systems to employ lower grade inertial sensors for the sake of cost and availability. Current inertial navigation systems on missiles can perform accurately for a limited time without GPS aiding. However, GPS is the most likely system that is going to be jammed in a crisis or war by low cost jammers by any opposing force. Missiles do not have adequate equipment to maintain accuracy when GPS is jammed completely in the battle area. In this thesis, a new method is proposed to improve performance of INS systems onboard missiles and autonomous aerial vehicles with EO sensors in a GPS denied environment. Previously laid ground based beacons are used by the missile EO/IIR seeker for bearing-only measurements and position updates are performed by the use of modified artillery survey algorithms based on triangulation techniques which involve angle measurements. For mission planning, two main problems are identified as deployment problem and path planning problem and a tool for the optimal laying of beacons for a given desired trajectory and optimal path planning for a given network of beacons is developed by using evolutionary algorithms and results for test scenarios are discussed.

Esta tesis aborda la sincronización de una o varias réplicas de una señal conocida recibidas en un entorno con propagación multicamino e interferencias direccionales. Uno de los hilos conductores de este trabajo es la aplicación sistemática del principio de máxima verosimilitud (ML) junto con un modelo de señal en el cual las armas espaciales no tienen estructura, y en cual el ruido es Gaussiano y presenta una matriz de correlación desconocida. Esta última suposición es fundamental a la hora de obtener estimadores capaces de atenuar las señales interferentes que presentan algún tipo de estructura, y esto se consigue sin necesidad de recurrir a la estimación de ciertos parámetros de dichas señales. Por otra parte, la suposición de que las armas espaciales carecen de estructura tiene ventajas desde un punto de vista práctico, al mismo tiempo que simplifica la estimación del resto de parámetros ya que las estimaciones de estas firmas se pueden calcular de forma cerrada. Esto constituye un primer paso hacia la eliminación de las búsquedas en múltiples dimensiones, que es otro de los objetivos perseguidos en este trabajo.En la primera parte de la tesis se deduce la solución de máxima verosimilitud para el problema general de estimación de retardos cuando el ruido tiene correlación espacial desconocida. Se demuestra que el criterio resultante para los retardos es consistente y asintóticamente eficiente, pero también es altamente no-lineal debido a la presencia del determinante de una matriz y no permite, por tanto, el uso de procedimientos sencillos de optimización. Asimismo, se demuestra y se argumenta intuitivamente que el criterio _ optimo ML se puede aproximar por una función de coste más sencilla que es asintóticamente equivalente. A diferencia de otros problemas de estimación, en el caso tratado aquí, el primer término del desarrollo de Taylor del estimador ML no conserva la eficiencia asintótica. La característica esencial de la nueva función de coste es que depende linealmente de la matriz de proyección sobre el subespacio de las señales y, por lo tanto, admite ser minimizada mediante el algoritmo IQML, que es eficiente desde el punto de vista computacional. Además, la existencia de métodos de inicialización sencillos y robustos a las interferencias, los cuales se basan en el uso de una matriz de pesos igual a la identidad y posiblemente también en el algoritmo ESPRIT, hace que el esquema de estimación propuesto pueda ser viable para un diseño práctico. La nueva función de coste se puede aplicar de la misma manera a la estimación del retardo en un canal FIR. En este caso, el algoritmo IQML se puede modificar de forma que, en cada iteración, la estimación del retardo se obtiene a partir de las raíces de un polinomio cuyo orden es igual a la longitud del canal.El objetivo perseguido por los estimadores presentados en la segunda parte de la tesis es aprovechar una particularidad de los sistemas GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems), que consiste en que la dirección de llegada de la señal directa puede ser conocida a priori. Basándose en esta información adicional y suponiendo que el array está calibrado, se propone un modelo simplificado, aunque al mismo tiempo aproximado, para la señal recibida. En este modelo todas las señales excepto la señal directa se engloban en un término con correlación espacial desconocida. Se analizan los estimadores ML del retardo y de la fase de portadora de la señal directa. El sesgo producido por las componentes multicamino al utilizar estos estimadores se reduce de forma muy importante con respecto al sesgo que sufren otros métodos. De hecho, el error cuadrático medio de los estimadores propuestos es en muchas ocasiones muy próximo o incluso inferior al mínimo error que se puede alcanzar con modelos más detallados del canal multicamino. Asimismo, se presentan dos algoritmos de estimación del retardo basados en el cálculo de las raíces de un polinomio. Se demuestra también que las estimaciones ML se pueden obtener a partir de la señal de salida de un conformador de haz híbrido. Debido a que el propio conformador depende de las estimaciones del retardo y de la amplitud de la señal directa, el uso de un algoritmo iterativo surge de forma natural. La formulación mediante el conformador híbrido proporciona una interpretación alternativa interesante de la estimación ML, y podrá ser apropiada para una realización práctica. Finalmente, se demuestra analíticamente y numéricamente que el estimador propuesto para el retardo es robusto frente a errores en el valor nominal del vector de enfoque de la señal directa, y se presenta una manera de extender el margen tolerable de errores de apuntamiento.En la última parte de la tesis se trata la sincronización de un usuario deseado que transmite una secuencia de entrenamiento conocida en un sistema de comunicaciones DS-CDMA.El modelo de señal utilizado agrupa el ruido, y la interferencia externa y de acceso múltiple en un término de ruido equivalente que presenta una matriz de correlación espacio-temporal desconocida. Partiendo de este modelo, se deduce un estimador del retardo que es una aproximación para un numero grande de muestras del estimador ML exacto y que es apropiado para canales con desvanecimientos lentos y noselectivos en frecuencia. El estimador propuesto es una técnica de un solo usuario y es resistente al efecto near-far. Su importancia radica en el hecho de que aprovecha la estructura de las señales en el dominio temporal y espacial, lo que contrasta con otros métodos existentes que, a pesar de utilizar un array de antenas, sólo utilizan la estructura de las señales en uno de los dos dominios. En un sistema de comunicaciones móviles, el usuario deseado está interferido por un número generalmente elevado de señales de otros usuarios y por posibles interferencias externas. En concordancia con este hecho, los resultados numéricos han mostrado que el uso conjunto de todos los grados de libertad espacio-temporales es indispensable para la correcta adquisición y seguimiento del retardo en sistemas con una carga elevada de usuarios y/o en presencia de interferencias externas. / The thesis deals with the synchronization of one or several replicas of a known signal received in a scenario with multipath propagation and directional interference. A connecting theme along this work is the systematic application of the maximum likelihood (ML) principle together with a signal model in which the spatial signatures are unstructured and the noise term is Gaussian with an unknown correlation matrix. This last assumption is key in obtaining estimators that are capable of mitigating the disturbing signals that exhibit certain structure. On the other hand, the assumption of unstructured spatial signatures is interesting from a practical standpoint and facilitates the estimation. The elimination of the multidimensional searches required by many estimators is one of the main objectives of the thesis.In the first part of the thesis, the maximum likelihood solution to the general time delay estimation problem for the case of noise with unknown spatial correlation is derived. The resulting criterion for the delays is shown to be consistent and asymptotically efficient; but it is highly non-linear, and does not lead to simple optimization procedures. It is shown that the optimal ML criterion can be approximated by an asymptotically equivalent cost function. The cost function depends linearly on the projection matrix onto the subspace spanned by the signals, and hence it can be minimized using the IQML algorithm. The existence of simple initialization schemes based on identity weightings or ESPRIT makes the approach viable for practical implementation. The proposed cost function can be applied to the estimation of the delay in a FIR channel. In this case, each iteration of IQML comes down to rooting a polynomial.The goal of the estimators presented in the second part of the thesis is to take advantage of one particularity of the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) systems, such as GPS and GLONASS, consisting in that the direction-of-arrival of the line-of-sight signal may be known a priori. A simplified and approximate model for the received signal is proposed. The ML estimators of the time delay and carrier phase of the direct signal largely reduce the bias produced by multipath components. Their RMSE is in many situations very close to or even better than the best possible performance attainable with more detailed models of the multipath channel. It is also shown that the ML estimates can be obtained from the output signal of a hybrid beamformer. In the last part of the thesis, the synchronization of a desired user transmitting a known training sequence in a DS-CDMA communication system is addressed. Multiple-access interference, external interference and noise are assumed to have unknown space-time correlation. A large-sample ML code-timing estimator that operates in frequency-nonselective, slowly fading channels is derived. It is a single-user and near-far resistant method. It is shown that the use of all spatial and temporal degrees of freedom is indispensable for the correct acquisition and tracking of the synchronization parameters in heavily loaded systems and/or in the presence of external interference.

Esta tesis doctoral llevó a cabo el estudio, desarrollo e implementación de algoritmos para la navegación con sistemas globales de navegación por satélite (GNSS), enfocándose en la determinación precisa de la posición, velocidad y aceleración usando GPS, en modo post-procesado y lejos de estaciones de referencia. Uno de los objetivos era desarrollar herramientas en esta área y hacerlas disponibles a la comunidad GNSS. Por ello el desarrollo se hizo dentro del marco del proyecto preexistente de software libre llamado GPS Toolkit (GPSTk). Una de las primeras tareas realizadas fue la validación de las capacidades de la GPSTk para el procesado del pseudorango, realizando comparaciones con una herramienta de procesamiento de datos probada (BRUS). La gestión de datos GNSS demostró ser un asunto importante cuando se intentó extender las capacidades de la GPSTk al procesamiento de datos obtenidos de las fases de la señal GPS. Por ello se desarrollaron las Estructuras de Datos GNSS (GDS), que combinadas con su paradigma de procesamiento aceleran el proceso de desarrollo de software y reducen errores. La extensión de la GPSTk a los algoritmos de procesado en fase se hizo mediante la ayuda de las GDS, proporcionándose importantes clases accesorias que facilitan el trabajo. Se implementó el procesado de datos Precise Point Positioning (PPP) con ejemplos relativamente simples basados en las GDS, y al comparar sus resultados con otras aplicaciones de reputación ya establecida, se encontró que destacan entre los mejores. También se estudió cómo obtener la posición precisa, en post-proceso, de un receptor GPS a cientos de kilómetros de la estación de referencia más cercana y usando tasas de datos arbitrarias (una limitación del método PPP). Las ventajas aportadas por las GDS permitieron la implementación de un procesado semejante a un PPP cinemático basado en una red de estaciones de referencia, estrategia bautizada como Precise Orbits Positioning (POP) porque sólo necesita órbitas precisas para trabajar y es independiente de la información de los relojes de los satélites GPS. Los resultados de este enfoque fueron muy similares a los del método PPP cinemático estándar, pero proporcionando soluciones de posición con una tasa mayor y de manera más robusta. La última parte se enfocó en la implementación y mejora de algoritmos para determinar con precisión la velocidad y aceleración de un receptor GPS. Se hizo énfasis en el método de las fases de Kennedy debido a su buen rendimiento, desarrollando una implementación de referencia y demostrando la existencia de una falla en el procedimiento propuesto originalmente para el cálculo de las velocidades de los satélites. Se propuso entonces una modificación relativamente sencilla que redujo en un factor mayor que 35 el RMS de los errores 3D en velocidad. Tomando ideas de los métodos Kennedy y POP se desarrolló e implementó un nuevo procedimiento de determinación de velocidad y aceleración que extiende el alcance. Este método fue llamado Extended Velocity and Acceleration determination (EVA). Un experimento usando una aeronave ligera volando sobre los Pirineos mostró que tanto el método de Kennedy (modificado) como el método EVA son capaces de responder ante la dinámica de este tipo de vuelos. Finalmente, tanto el método de Kennedy modificado como el método EVA fueron aplicados a una red en la zona ecuatorial de Sur América con líneas de base mayores a 1770 km. En este escenario el método EVA mostró una clara ventaja tanto en los promedios como en las desviaciones estándar para todas las componentes de la velocidad y la aceleración. / This Ph.D. Thesis focuses on the development of algorithms and tools for precise GPS-based position, velocity and acceleration determination very far from reference stations in post-process mode. One of the goals of this thesis was to develop a set of state-of-the-art GNSS data processing tools, and make them available for the research community. Therefore, the software development effort was done within the frame of a preexistent open source project called the GPSTk. Therefore, validation of the GPSTk pseudorange-based processing capabilities with a trusted GPS data processing tool was one of the initial task carried out in this work. GNSS data management proved to be an important issue when trying to extend GPSTk capabilities to carrier phasebased data processing algorithms. In order to tackle this problem the GNSS Data Structures (GDS) and their associated processing paradigm were developed. With this approach the GNSS data processing becomes like an assembly line, providing an easy and straightforward way to write clean, simple to read and use software that speeds up development and reduces errors. The extension of GPSTk capabilities to carrier phase-based data processing algorithms was carried out with the help of the GDS, adding important accessory classes necessary for this kind of data processing and providing reference implementations. The performance comparison of these relatively simple GDS-based source code examples with other state-of-the art Precise Point Positioning (PPP) suites demonstrated that their results are among the best. Furthermore, given that the GDS design is based on data abstraction, it allows a very flexible handling of concepts beyond mere data encapsulation, including programmable general solvers, among others. The problem of post-process precise positioning of GPS receivers hundreds of kilometers away from nearest reference station at arbitrary data rates was dealt with, overcoming an important limitation of classical post-processing strategies like PPP. The advantages of GDS data abstraction regarding solvers were used to implement a kinematic PPP-like processing based on a network of stations. This procedure was named Precise Orbits Positioning (POP) because it is independent of precise clock information and it only needs precise orbits to work. The results from this approach were very similar (as expected) to the standard kinematic PPP processing strategy, but yielding a higher positioning rate. Also, the network-based processing of POP seems to provide additional robustness to the results, even for receivers outside the network area. The last part of this thesis focused on implementing, improving and testing algorithms for the precise determination of velocity and acceleration hundreds of kilometers away from nearest reference station. Special emphasis was done on the Kennedy method because of its good performance. A reference implementation of Kennedy method was developed, and several experiments were carried out. Experiments done with very short baselines showed a flaw in the way satellite velocities were computed, introducing biases in the velocity solution. A relatively simple modification was proposed, and it reduced the RMS of 5-min average velocity 3D errors by a factor of over 35. Then, borrowing ideas from Kennedy method and the POP method, a new velocity and acceleration determination procedure named EVA was developed and implemented that greatly extends the effective range. An experiment using a light aircraft flying over the Pyrenees showed that both the modified-Kennedy and EVA methods were able to cope with the dynamics of this type of flight. Finally, both modified-Kennedy and EVA method were applied to a challenging scenario in equatorial South America, with baselines over 1770 km, where EVA method showed a clear advantage in both averages and standard deviations for all components of velocity and acceleration. Lloc i

Denna rapport har i huvudsak inriktat sig på två olika områden. Dels vad maskinstyrning är och hur det fungerar samt vilka system som normalt används på ett anläggningsprojekt. Dels om hanteringen av terrängmodeller kan förändras i en generalentreprenad och eventuellt bli en del av bygghandlingen. Syftet med en förändrad hantering är att minska entreprenörens arbetsinsats med terrängmodeller och därmed minska den totala projektkostnaden. En terrängmodell är en digital tredimensionell volymmodell av verkligheten skapad i ett dataprogram, och nödvändig när tredimensionell maskinstyrning ska användas. Frågeställningarna och undersökningsarbetet i detta examensarbete har inriktat sig på entreprenadformen generalentreprenad, samt maskintyperna grävmaskin, bandschaktare och väghyvel. Arbetet med att undersöka vilka system som finns på marknaden och hur de fungerar har genomförts genom kontakter med leverantörer av maskinstyrningssystem. Leverantörerna har bistått med material i form av broschyrer och liknande som studerats, information finns också tillgänglig på deras respektive internetsidor. Möten med personal hos Kanonaden Entreprenad AB och studiebesök på deras arbetsplatser har också gett oss mycket information om funktionalitet och problem med maskinstyrningssystem. Frågeställningen om en förändrad hantering av terrängmodeller är möjlig har undersökts genom intervjuer, E-post konversationer och litteraturstudier. Intervjuer har genomförts med personer som bedöms ha god insyn i de olika relevanta ämnesområdena för frågeställningen. Litteratur som studerats har främst varit standardavtal, branschstandarder och lagtexter. Resultatet som framkommer i rapporten visar på att det kommer blir svårt att förändra hanteringen av terrängmodeller så att det skulle kunna vara en del av bygghandlingen i en generalentreprenad. Dels finns i nuläget inga branschstandarder, standardavtal eller liknande som kan vara tillämpliga. Dels så försvårar Lagen om offentlig upphandling(LOU) de tekniska preciseringar som är nödvändiga för att överlämningen av terrängmodeller ska vara möjlig. När terrängmodeller ska lämnas mellan parter i ett projekt krävs en teknisk samordning när det gäller programvara, versioner, filtyper och liknande. Ett problem som uppstår om inte denna samordning görs är att information faller bort från terrängmodellen vid överföringen. Eventuellt kan överföringen vara omöjlig att genomföra över huvud taget. Rapportens slutsats blir således att en förändring i hanteringen av terrängmodeller är svår att genomföra i nuläget så att det leder till en minskad arbetsinsats.

This thesis work is intended to analyze whether the municipalities has a need for the new technology of mobile mapping. Mobile mapping consists of the technologies of laser scanning, photographing and positioning of streets and roads in city environment and in the countryside. When these technologies are operating together a georeferenced three-dimensional image model is created, which has specific coordinates that states its position on the surface of the earth. Thanks to the laser scanning process even measuring can be performed in this model. The municipal sector consists of many different departments which use visual spatial information. These departments are an interesting target group for this system. Specific departments within the municipal sector, which we considered were the most suitable, have been selected. Individuals within these departments have replied to a questionnaire where several statements were given. The statements are constructed so that the replies that are received as much as possible describe the need for this new technology. In addition to the questionnaire a number of telephone- and in-depth interviews have been done in purpose of creating a basis which is as solid as possible. The results that have been obtained indicate that there is a rather considerable demand for the technology. The majority of the asked professions have given replies which hint that they would appreciate visual measurable spatial information in accurate and detailed 3D-models. The telephone interviews have pointed in this direction as well. Since a municipality is organized of a large number of departments which each have a need for the technology, a reference can be made to the expression “many a little makes a mickle”. In other words, the municipal need for the technology is considerable since many different units find their own uses for mobile mapping. We have after this investigation obtained a result which implies that mobile mapping would be a good investment for the municipal sector.

Georeferencing is an important task in terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) applications. It means transformation of the 3D data (point clouds) into an external coordinate system so that it can be combined with other spatial data. The aim of this study is to investigate the accuracy and precision of real-time updated free station (RUFS) as a georeferencing method in TLS applications, and to evaluate its efficiency. The RUFS is used in total station surveys, implies determination of the instrument position and orientation based on measurements of two or more backsight targets, whose coordinates are determined with Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GNSS. The field surveying was carried out in May and June 2010. A control point was established based on static GNSS measurements in order to have reference data to evaluate the accuracy of station coordinates. Three different configurations of 10 backsight targets were tested: the targets were evenly spread over the sectors of 200 and 100 gon on one arc and 100 gon on two arcs. The measurements were repeated ten times for each configuration. The precision and accuracy of the station position were then derived by processing the surveying data. The results show that with increasing the number of backsight points from 2 to 10, the planimetric precision of the station position improved from 6 to 3 mm; the height precision was at the level of 3−5 mm. The accuracy of the station position improved from 10 to 2 mm in planimetry, and from 28 to 11 mm in height. The time expense for one set of measurements with RUFS was approximately 15 minutes.

Rapporten syftar till att avgöra om entreprenörernas stora användning av GNSSteknikinom vägbyggnation är berättigad med avseende på ställda toleranskrav.GNSS betyder ”Global Navigation Satellite Systems” och är ett samlingsnamn förde satellitsystem som idag används för att utföra precisionsmätningar.En litteraturstudie har gjorts för att få svar på frågorna om vilka toleranser somgäller för vägutsättning samt vilken noggrannhet de olika mätmetoderna har.Kontakt har tagits med ett antal vägentreprenörer från olika företag som är insattai vägutsättning. De har fått besvara ett antal frågor som reder ut vilkenmetod/utrustning de använder idag samt hur stor kunskapen är om GNSS iblandentreprenörerna. De har dessutom fått svara på vad de anser är för-, respektivenackdelar med användning av GNSS vid vägutsättning.En litteraturstudie av byggtoleranser resulterar i de värden som måste uppnås vidbygget. Dessa jämförs sedan med de noggrannheter som de olika mätmetodernahar enligt en litteraturstudie av dessa.Frågeformulär har skickats ut och sammanställs i rapporten vilket ger en godåterspegling av entreprenörernas åsikter och kunskaper om GNSS samt vad deanvänder sig av idag. Dessutom finns en sammanfattad punktlista med för ochnackdelar som angetts av mätansvariga hos de olika entreprenörerna.En slutsats som kan dras är att den beställare som använder sig av AMAAnläggning 07 vid upprättande av bygghandling också anger toleranskrav i bådeplan och höjd för alla vägens lager.Ska man jämföra mätnoggrannhet med de hjälptoleranser i höjd som beskrivits såär GNSS-tekniken otillräcklig för den noggrannheten som ställs. Dessahjälptoleranser speglar dock inte funktionskraven till fullo utan är bara ett slagshjälpmedel för att räkna ut rimliga utsättningstoleranser.Entreprenörer vittnar om att GNSS-teknik kan användas vid anläggning avsamtliga obundna lager undantaget bärlagerjustering för att uppfylla defunktionskrav som ställs på vägen. Detta verifieras med de efterkontroller somgörs på vägens färdiga lager.De entreprenörer som är vana vid större vägprojekt har även stor kunskap omGNSS-teknik och använder den flitigt.Det finns stora fördelar med användandet av GNSS-tekniken. Smidighet, en godöverblick för maskinföraren och tidsbesparing är några av demMen det finns även vissa nackdelar som dålig kompabilitet mellan olika märken påutrustning, onoggrannheten som inte tillåter att man helt slutar använda annan typav mätutrustning samt att platsansvariga tappar överblicken över bygget. / The report aims to determine whether contractors' high use of GNSS technologyin road construction is entitled in respect of subordinated tolerance requirements.GNSS means ”Global Navigation Satellite Systems” and is a collective name forthe satellite systems that today are used to perform precision measurements.A literature study has been done to get answers to questions about the tolerancesthat apply to road stake out and the accuracy of the different measurementmethods.Contact has been made with a number of road contractors from variouscompanies who are familiar with road stake out. They've got to answer a numberof questions that sorts out which method / equipment they use today and howmuch knowledge is on GNSS among contractors. They also answered questionsabout what they believe is for, and disadvantages with the use of GNSS in roadstake out.The literature review of construction tolerances results in the values that must beachieved during the construction. These results are then compared with theaccuracies of different measurement methods, according to the literature review ofthese.A questionnaire was sent out and responses are compiled in the report, they giveus a good reflection of contractors' opinions and knowledge of GNSS and whatthey use today. A bulleted list has been made of pros and cons identified bypersons responsible of measuring among the various contractors.A conclusion to be drawn is that the client that uses the AMA Anläggning 07 inthe preparation of construction document also specifies tolerances of all layers ofthe road, both horizontally and vertically.Shall one compare accuracy of GNSS technology with the help tolerances inheight described in the report; the method is inadequate for the accuracyrequirements. These tolerances are not fully comparable to the performancerequirements; it is only a tool to figure out a reasonable stake out tolerances.Contractors testify that GNSS technology can be used in the construction of allunbound layers except for base course adjustments to meet the functionaldemands on the road.The contractors who are accustomed to major road projects have also greatknowledge of GNSS technology and use it diligently. There are great benefits withthe use of GNSS technology. Agility, a good overview for the machine operatorand time saving are some of them. But there are also some disadvantages such aspoor compatibility between different brands, inaccuracy that does not allow tocompletely stopping using other types of measuring equipment and locationmanagers that loses the overview.

Lantmäteriet har fått i uppdrag att ta fram en Ny Nationell Höjdmodell (NNH) över Sverige. Höjddata samlas in med flygburen laserskanning (FLS) och osäkerheten i höjd ligger generellt sett under 0,1 m på hårda plana ytor, dock kan osäkerheten öka avsevärt i terrängtyper med tät vegetation eller i områden med starkt sluttande terräng. Syftet med detta examensarbete är att kontrollera hur osäkerheten påverkas av olika vegetationstyper samt olika lutningsgrader. Provningen utfördes i delar av Avesta och Hedemora kommun i april 2012, där nio olika provytor kontrollerades enligt den tekniska specifikationen SIS-TS 21145:2007 ”Byggmätning – Statistisk provning av digital terrängmodell”. Kontrollprofiler mättes in i provytorna med Nätverks Real Time Kinematic Global Navigation Satellite System (NRTK-GNSS) för de provytor detta var möjligt, övriga provytor inmättes med totalstation. Analysen genomfördes i programvaran TerraScan där triangulerat laserdata jämfördes mot inmätta kontrollprofiler. Resultatet visar att laserdata ligger högre än markytan för alla provytor. Medelavvikelsen för de olika vegetationstyperna ligger mellan 0,105 och 0,593 m där systematiska avvikelser upptäcktes i flera provytor. För de olika lutningsgraderna ligger medelavvikelsen mellan 0,024 och 0,122 m, där en tydlig ökning sker vid 40 graders lutning. Troliga orsaker till de medelavvikelser som erhållits för vegetationstyperna är att punkter felaktigt klassificerats som mark, samt att det i vissa fall helt saknas punkter på markytan. För provytan med 40 graders lutning beror medelavvikelsen troligen på att det horisontella felet har inverkat på det vertikala. Tät vegetation påverkar osäkerheten i höjd men något tydligt samband mellan lutningsgrad och osäkerhet kan inte ses. / Lantmäteriet – the Swedish mapping, cadastral and land registration authority, has been commissioned to develop a new national elevation model of Sweden and the data is collected by airborne laser scanning. The uncertainty in height is generally less than 0,1 m on hard, flat surfaces but in terrain with dense vegetation and areas with high inclination the uncertainty can increase significantly. The purpose of this study is to check how the uncertainty is affected by different vegetation types and different degrees of inclination. The control was performed in parts of Avesta and Hedemora municipality in April 2012, where nine different plots were checked according to the technical specification SIS-TS 21145:2007 “Engineering survey for construction works – Statistical test of digital terrain model”. Profiles were measured with Network Real Time Kinematic Global Navigation Satellite System (NRTK-GNSS) where possible, and otherwise a total station was used. The analysis was performed in the software TerraScan in which triangulated laser data were compared with the control profiles. The result shows that laser measured heights are higher than the actual surface. The average deviation of the different vegetation types range from 0,150 to 0,593 m and a systematic deviation was detected in some sample surfaces. For the different slope rates the average deviation ranged from 0,024 to 0,122 m where a clear increase could be seen at 40 degrees inclination. Likely reasons for the deviations obtained for different vegetation types are that points incorrectly has been classified as ground, and that in some cases points on the ground are completely missing. The mean deviation for the sample surface with 40 degrees inclination is probably due to the influence of a horizontal error on the vertical error. Dense vegetation affects the uncertainty in height, but no apparent relationship between inclination and uncertainty can be seen.