Buscando alternativas ao enxerto ósseo autógeno para reconstruções craniofaciais, propõe-se a utilização de aloenxerto ósseo de crânio criopreservado, irradiado e enriquecido com medula óssea autógena.Vinte e um coelhos foram sacrificados e tiveram seus ossos parietais retirados, criopreservados e irradiados com irradiação gama em dose de 50kGy. Os aloenxertos foram implantados em defeitos nos crânios de vinte e um receptores. À esquerda implantava-se o aloenxerto ósseo puro e à direita o aloenxerto adicionado de medula óssea autógena. Os coelhos foram sacrificados em duas, cinco e dez semanas e os enxertos submetidos à análise macroscópica e histomorfométrica. Todos os enxertos apresentavam-se fixos ao leito. Os parâmetros histomorfométricos não mostraram diferenças estatisticamente significante. / Searching for alternatives to autogenous bone graft in craniofacial reconstructions, it is proposed deep-frozen, irradiated calvarial bone allograft added with autogenous bone marrow utilization. Twenty and one rabbits were sacrificed and their parietal bones harvest, deep-frozen and gamma irradiated with 50kGy. The allografts were implanted in twenty one other rabbits. At left side only allograft were placed, at right side were put allografts added with autogenous bone marrow. The animals were sacrificed in two, five and ten weeks. Macroscopical examination showed all grafts fixed at the host bone, the histomorphometric analysis did not showed significant statistical differences between the left and right sides.

O Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) é o tipo de tumor cerebral maligno com maior incidência na população. A perda do gene PTEN (fosfatase e tensina homóloga) é uma alteração comum associada ao GBM (até 60%) e esse gene codifica uma enzima que antagoniza a ação de PI3K, inibindo a fosforilação de AKT e, desse modo, regulando vias de sinalização relativas à sobrevivência celular e proliferação. Mutações em PTEN têm sido associadas à instabilidade genômica e ao aumento no número de quebras de fita dupla, além de serem relacionadas também à redução da expressão de RAD51, a qual é uma proteína-chave da via de reparo por recombinação homóloga (HR). Diante disso, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar se o status de PTEN interfere na expressão de RAD51 e proteínas parálogas (RAD51C e RAD51B) e, consequentemente, se PTEN é capaz de influenciar a eficiência de HR. Com o objetivo de induzir a formação de quebras de fita duplas (DSBs) no DNA, as células foram tratadas com a droga antitumoral etoposídeo, que produz quebras no DNA, principalmente duplas (DSBs). Duas linhagens de GBM com status diferentes de PTEN foram utilizadas: T98G (PTEN mutado) e LN18 (PTEN tipo selvagem). As células de GBM foram tratadas com etoposídeo em diferentes experimentos ou ensaios: proliferação celular, quantificação da necrose e apoptose, cinética do ciclo celular, imunofluorescência da proteína ?- H2AX, quantificação dos níveis de expressão de RAD51 e parálogas e o silenciamento de PTEN na linhagem LN18. Os resultados mostraram que a linhagem LN18 foi mais sensível à droga nos tempos iniciais (24 e 72 h) (até 61,2% de redução), em comparação com a T98G (até 12,3% de redução); no tempo mais tardio de análise (120 h), ambas as linhagens sofreram redução acentuadana proliferação. Adicionalmente, a LN18 exibiu maior porcentagem de células apoptóticas e necróticas, em comparação com a linhagem T98G, nos tempos de24, 72 e 120 horas após o tratamento. O ensaio de imunofluorescência revelou maior indução de células positivas para ?-H2AX na linhagem LN18 em relação à T98G (p =<0,001), após tratamento com etoposídeo (50 e 75 ?M). Nessas concentrações, a análise da cinética do ciclo celular mostrou um bloqueio na fase G2 em ambas as linhagens (p<0,01) nos tempos analisados (24, 48 e 72h), mas apenas a linhagem LN18 revelou bloqueio na fase S. A expressão de RAD51, RAD51B e C foi mais elevada em LN18 em comparação com a T98G e U87MG, nas células tratados (75?M) e controles. PTEN foi silenciado (siRNA-PTEN) na linhagem LN18 para verificar se a redução da expressão desse gene reduziria também a expressão de RAD51 e parálogas. Após 72 horas de silenciamento, com 69,9% de inibição de PTEN, a expressão de RAD51 e RAD51C também se mostrou reduzida em relação ao grupo controle. Em conjunto, os resultados obtidos no presente estudo indicam que o status de PTEN é crucial para as vias de sobrevivência, controle do ciclo celular e indução de apoptose nas células de GBM, indicando a relação entre PTEN e RAD51 e parálogas nas células de GBM tratadas com um indutor de quebras no DNA. Adicionalmente, outras ferramentas de estudo são requeridas para investigar as vias moleculares e possíveis interações e complexos proteicos envolvendo a participação de PTEN e RAD51 e suas proteínas parálogas / Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common malignant brain tumor. Loss of PTEN (Phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) gene is the most frequent alteration associated with GBM and encodes a phosphatase enzyme that antagonizes the PI3K, by inhibiting AKT phosphorylation thereby regulating signaling pathways related to cell survival and proliferation. PTEN deficiency has been associated with genomic instability and increased endogenous DSBs, as well as reduced expression of RAD51, which is a key gene with crucial role in HR. In this study, we aimed to evaluate whether the PTEN status in GBM cell lines can affect RAD51 expression and HR efficiency under conditions of treatment with the antineoplastic drug etoposide, which targets the DNA topoisomerase II enzyme, thus leading to the production of DNA breaks. T98G (PTEN mutated) and LN18 (PTEN wild-type) cells were treated with etoposide, and several assays were carried out: cell proliferation, detection and quantification of necrosis and apoptosis, cell cycle kinetics, immunofluorescence staining, RAD51 (and paralogs) protein expression, and PTEN silencing in LN18 cell line, by using the siRNA method. LN18 cells showed a greater reduction in cell proliferation, compared to T98G after treatments (25, 50, 75 e 100 µM) at 24, 72 and 120h. Both cell lines showed a significant increase (p=<0.001) in cell death induction, but LN18 presented a greater percentage of apoptotic and necrotic cells than T98G (24, 72 and 120h). The induction of DSB was analyzed by immunostaining (with ?-H2AX antibody), and for the concentrations (50 and 75 µM) tested, LN18 showed higher levels of ?-H2AX positive cells than that observed for T98G (p=<0.001). The analysis of cell cycle kinetics performed for cells treated with etoposide (50 and 75 µM) and collected at 24, 48 and 72h, LN18 presented a greater G2-blockage, as compared to T98G; only LN18 showed a blockage at the S-phase. The expression of RAD51, RAD51B and C was higher in LN18 compared to T98G and U87MG cells treated with etoposide (75 µM) and controls. When we silenced PTEN in LN18 linage, to check if PTEN silencing may reduce the expression of RAD51 and its paralogs, we found a 69.9% reduction in PTEN protein expressions, and the expression of RAD51 and RAD51C was also found reduced, compared to the control group. Taken together, the results obtained in this study indicate that the status of PTEN is critical for survival pathways, cell cycle control and induction of apoptosis in GBM cells, confirming the relationship between PTEN and RAD51 and its paralogs in GBM cells treated with an inducer of DNA breaks. These results contribute with relevant information for further studies on molecular pathways underlying the interaction between PTEN and RAD51 and its paralogs

Com o objetivo de analisar a influência do fenômeno de congelamento e o tempo de criopreservação sobre as propriedades biomecânicas de tendões, os autores estudaram 40 tendões de Aquiles obtidos de 20 cadáveres humanos. De cada cadáver foram retirados dois tendões, sendo que um foi testado a fresco e o contralateral congelado a - 85o C, durante um período de seis ou 12 semanas. Os corpos de prova foram submetidos a ensaios de tração, com análise de suas propriedades biomecânicas. Os resultados foram comparados estatisticamente pelo método de "t-student", com índice de significância de 0,05, não havendo diferença significativa entre os grupos "congelado" e "a fresco" / For the purpose of analyzing the influence of the freezing phenomenon and cryopreservation time over the biomechanical properties of tendons, the authors studied 40 Achilles tendons from 20 human cadavers. Each cadaver had two tendons removed, one of which was tested whilst fresh and its contralateral whilst frozen at - 85o C, for a period of six or 12 weeks. The trial items were submitted to tensile testing in order to analyze their biomechanical properties. The results were compared statistically using the T-Student method, with a significance ratio of 0.05, there being no significant difference between the 'frozen' group and the 'fresh' group

As perdas ósseas em alguns seguimentos do sistema músculoesquelético têm sido motivo de grande preocupação na área da Ortopedia e Traumatologia. Propostas de tratamentos com uso de enxertos e fatores de crescimento são descritas ao longo dos anos. Neste estudo avaliamos o efeito do plasma rico em plaquetas -PRP na fase inicial do processo de osteointegração de enxertos ósseos homólogos criopreservados a - 80 °C, em forma de blocos, implantados no côndilo femoral de coelhos. Operamos 19 animais (38 fêmures), onde ambas as técnicas foram aplicadas no mesmo animal em lados alternados. De um lado aplicamos o aloenxerto isolado (Lado 1) e no outro associamos o aloenxerto ao PRP (Lado 2). Após 15 dias, os animais foram sacrificados e os côndilos femorais com as áreas de enxertia analisados pela histomorfometria com o método semiautomático. Não observamos efeito do plasma rico em plaquetas nas áreas de enxertias dos aloenxertos, pois a comparação dos parâmetros histomorfométricos estruturais, de formação e reabsorção não mostraram diferenças significativas. / Bone loss, in some segments of the muscle-skeleton system, are of great concern in the fields of Orthopedics and Traumatology. There are several options of treatment by means of bone grafts and growth factors. In this study we evaluate the effect of platelet rich plasma (PRP) in the initial phase of osteointegration of cryopreserved (- 80 °C) homologous bone grafts, in blocks, implanted in the femoral condyles of rabbits. We operated 19 animals (38 femurs). Both techniques were applied in the same animal in alternate sides. In one side we applied isolated allograft (side 1) and on the contralateral side we added PRP to the allograft (side 2). After 15 days, the animals were sacrificed and the femoral condyles, with the receptor area, were analyzed histomorphometrically (semi-automatic method). We found no effect of the PRP in the receptor. The comparison between the histomorphometric parameters of structural, formation and bone resorption showed no significant differences.

O projeto de obtenção de huAcMos (Anticorpos Monoclonais Humanizados) tinha como escopo a humanização de anticorpos murinos com potencial terapêutico, inserção das sequências em vetores de expressão e transfecção em células CHO (do inglês, Chinese Hamster Ovary). A expressão do huAcMo Anti-CD18 resultou em baixos níveis da proteína recombinante e inciamos o processo de expressão de isoformas do huAcMo Anti-CD3. As células foram transfectadas com seqüências codificadoras do fragmento FvFc Anti-CD3 e clonadas pelo equipamento ClonePix FL. O fragmento foi caracterizado e demonstrou uma menor afinidade quando comparada com a molécula murina original. Ulizamos o sistema de recombinação homóloga (CHO Flp-In, Invitrogen) para expressão da molécula inteira do huAcMo Anti-CD3. Os clones foram caracterizados e demonstrou, assim como o fragmento FvFc, uma menor afinidade pelo alvo. As diferenças nas propriedades de ligação são freqüentemente encontradas após processos de humanização; dependendo da função efetora esta diminuição de afinidade não é negativa para a molécula. / The humanized antibodies (huMab) project intent to use murine antibodies with therapeutic potencial to obtain more human sequences with maintened specificity. The sequences were inserted in expression vectors and transfected in CHO (Chinese Hamster Ovary) cells. Anti-CD18 huMab expression results in low levels of recombinant protein and lead us to try the expression of Anti-CD3 isoforms. The cells were transfected for the expression of a FvFc antibody fragment and cloned using ClonePix FL equipment. The fragment characterization demonstrate a lower affinity when compared with the murine molecule. We use the homologous recombination system (CHO Flp-In) for the expression of the whole molecule of huMab Anti-CD3; like the FvFc fragment, the whole molecule demonstrate a lower affinity for the target. The differences in the affinity properties are frequently found after humanization process and depending on the expected efector functions is not negatively characterized.

O vírus da cinomose canina (CDV) é um importante patógeno de cães domésticos e carnívoros selvagens. A infecção pelo CDV é relevante a nível mundial e está associada com alta morbidade e mortalidade. Em diversos países a cinomose é considerada controlada pelo uso de vacinas, no entanto, no Brasil ainda é endêmica, principalmente devido ao grande número de animais não domiciliados. Além disso, surtos em cães e várias espécies de animais silvestres ocorrem com frequência, dizimando populações ameaçadas. As vacinas vivas atenuadas são seguras para cães, mas seu uso não é aconselhado em espécies altamente suscetíveis à infecção pelo CDV. Também os relatos de surtos de cinomose em cães supostamente vacinados levantam a hipótese de que as vacinas disponíveis no mercado podem não ser eficientes frente a algumas cepas de campo. Com o objetivo de gerar dados acerca dos mecanismos de evolução do CDV e desenvolver e testar a eficácia de uma vacina bivalente inativada contra o vírus da raiva (RABV) e CDV a presente tese será apresentada na forma de dois artigos científicos. Ainda, um artigo de revisão sobre os modelos animais utilizados para obtenção de informações sobre o vírus do sarampo utilizando a infecção de CDV em furões e cães foi publicada e será apresentada na presente tese. No primeiro artigo, foi analisada a ocorrência de recombinação homóloga em genomas de CDV e detectou-se oito possíveis vírus recombinantes, incluindo um evento de recombinação entre uma cepa de campo e uma cepa vacinal atenuada, sugerindo que o uso de vacinação com vírus vivo atenuado pode influenciar a evolução do CDV. No segundo trabalho, uma vacina recombinante bivalente inativada baseada em RABV expressando as glicoproteínas do envelope do CDV, hemaglutinina e proteína de fusão, mostrou-se eficiente na proteção contra infecção por CDV em furões quando utilizado um protocolo prime/boost. Finalmente, foi publicada uma revisão de literatura sobre os modelos animais utilizados para obtenção de informações sobre a patogênese do vírus do sarampo utilizando a infecção com o vírus da cinomose. / Canine distemper virus (CDV) is an important pathogen of domestic dogs and wild carnivores. CDV infection is globally relevant and it is associated with high morbidity and mortality. In several countries, distemper is considered controlled by vaccination, however, in Brazil it is still endemic, mainly due to the large number of non-domiciliated animals. In addition, outbreaks in dogs and various species of wild animals occur frequently, decimating threatened populations. Live attenuated vaccines are safe for dogs, but their use is not advised in species that are highly susceptible to CDV infection. Also, reports of canine distemper in supposedly vaccinated dogs raise the hypothesis that commercially available vaccines may not be effective against some wild type strains. In order to investigate the mechanisms of CDV evolution and to develop and assess the efficacy of an inactivated bivalent vaccine against rabies virus and CDV, this thesis will be presented in the form of two scientific papers. Furthermore, a review article on the animal models used to gain information on measles virus using CDV infection in ferrets and dogs has been published and will be presented in this thesis. In the first paper, the occurrence of homologous recombination in CDV genomes was analyzed and eight possible recombinant viruses were detected, including a recombination event between a wild type strain and an attenuated vaccine strain, suggesting that the use vaccines based on attenuated live virus may influence CDV evolution. In the second study, an inactivated bivalent recombinant vaccine based on RABV expressing CDV envelope glycoproteins, hemagglutinin and fusion protein, proved to be effective in protecting against CDV infection in ferrets when using a prime/boost protocol. Finally, a literature review was published on the animal models used to obtain information on the pathogenesis of measles virus using infection with canine distemper virus.

O gênero Pestivirus da família Flaviviridae, compreende vírus de genoma RNA fita simples e polaridade positiva que comumente estão associados a infecções em ruminantes e suídeos. Possui quatro espécies reconhecidas: o vírus da diarreia viral bovina tipo 1 (BVDV-1), o BVDV-2, o vírus da doença da fronteira (BDV) e o vírus da peste suína clássica (CSFV). Além disso, possui possíveis espécies atípicas, sendo o vírus ‘HoBi’-like a mais reconhecida na literatura. Com o objetivo de gerar mais informações acerca da epidemiologia molecular de pestivírus no País e dos mecanismos na evolução de vírus do gênero, o presente trabalho será apresentado sob a forma de seis artigos científicos. Os trabalhos visam a caracterização de pestivírus detectados em bovinos e javalis no Rio Grande do Sul, a identificação de cepas resultantes de provável recombinação homóloga, a análise das variantes virais intrahospedeiro (quasispécies) de animais infectados pelo vírus ‘HoBi’-like, e a comparação da multiplicação in vitro de diferentes cepas de pestivírus em cultivos celulares oriundos de diferentes raças bovinas. No primeiro trabalho, amostras de soro bovino de animais do Rio Grande do Sul foram obtidas junto ao serviço veterinário oficial e submetidas a RT-PCR para detecção de pestivírus seguida de sequenciamento e análise filogenética das amostras positivas, onde 57,6% foram classificadas como BVDV-1 e 42,4% como BVDV-2, sendo constada frequência elevada de BVDV-2 quando comparada a outras regiões no mundo. No segundo trabalho, 40 amostras de javalis cativos obtidas de abatedouro foram testadas utilizando metodologia semelhante a anteriormente mencionada, e foi possível a detecção de uma amostra positiva, que foi classificada como BVDV-2, sendo a primeira evidência molecular do BVDV em javalis na literatura. No terceiro artigo científico, foi pesquisado a ocorrência de recombinação homóloga, utilizando metodologia in silico, em sequências de pestivírus presentes em banco de dados públicos, onde foram descritos novos possíveis eventos de recombinação entre BVDV-1a e BVDV-1b, BVDV-2a e BVDV-2b e CSFV-2.2 com outro genogrupo indefinido. No quarto e quinto trabalhos, animais persistentemente infectados com o vírus ‘HoBi’-like foram gerados experimentalmente e, utilizando RT-PCR seguida de clonagem, sequenciamento e análises in silico, a composição e variações intrahospedeiro das quasispécies virais em circulação foram avaliadas, onde foi possível observar que características individuais do hospedeiro são importantes na seleção de variantes virais e que a nuvem de mutantes aumenta com o passar do tempo, não havando quasispécie dominante. Por fim, no sexto artigo científico, a multiplicação de cepas de BVDV-1a e 1b, BVDV-2a e vírus ‘HoBi’-like foram avaliadas in vitro em células de cultivo primário obtidas de gado europeu, zebuíno e raça mista e comparadas utilizando modelos estatísticos, onde foi possível a observação de ausência de diferenças entre as raças (P=0,88), mas presença de diferença entre indivíduos da mesma raça (P˂0,05). Os resultados aqui apresentados somam informações acerca da epidemiologia molecular, biologia e evolução dos pestivírus, sendo importantes para embasar futuras campanhas de controle e erradicação das doenças causadas por pestivírus. / The genus Pestivirus of the family Flaviviridae, comprises single stranded RNA-viruses that are commonly associated with infections in ruminants and swine. It has four recognized species: bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 (BVDV-1), BVDV-2, border disease virus (BDV) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV). It also has putative atypical species where the ‘HoBi’-like virus is the most highlighted in the literature. In order to generate more information about molecular epidemiology of pestiviruses and important mechanisms in the evolution of the virus genus, this work will be presented in six scientific articles form. The works aimed in the characterization of pestivirus detected in cattle and wild boar in Rio Grande do Sul state, identification of strains resulting from putative homologous recombination, analysis of intrahost viral variants (quasispecies) of animals infected with ‘HoBi’-like viruses, and the comparison of in vitro growth of different pestivirus strains in cell cultures derived from different cattle breeds. In the first study, bovine serum samples of cattle from Rio Grande do Sul state were collected by the official veterinary service and submitted to RT-PCR for detection of pestivirus followed by DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the positive samples, where 57.6% were classified as BVDV-1 and 42.4% as BVDV-2, which revealed high frequency of BVDV- 2 when compared to other regions worldwide. In the second work, 40 captive wild boar lung samples obtained from slaughterhouse were tested using similar methodology described above, and one sample resulted positive and was classified as BVDV-2, which represented the first molecular evidence of BVDV in wild boars. In the third scientific article, the occurrence of homologous recombination was investigated using in silico methods applied to sequences available in public databases, which are described putative new events between BVDV-1a and BVDV-1b, BVDV-2a and 2b and CSFV-2.2 and undetermined genogroup. In the fourth and fifth studies, animals persistently infected with the ‘HoBi’-like viruses were experimentally generated and using RT-PCR followed by cloning, sequencing and in silico analysis, the composition and intrahost variations of viral quasispecies in circulation were evaluated, where it was observed that individual characteristics of the host are important in the selection of viral variants and the mutant clouds increased overtime. Finally, in the sixth scientific article, the growth of BVDV-1a and 1b, and BVDV-2b, ‘HoBi’-like virus strains were evaluated in vitro using primary cell cultures obtained by taurine, indicine and mixed breed cattle using statistical models, it was possible to observe the absence of differences between cattle breeds (P=0.88), but presence of difference between individuals within the breed (P˂0.05). The results presented herein add information about the molecular epidemiology, biology and evolution of pestiviruses, being important to support future control and eradication programs of diseases caused by pestiviruses.

Les cellules déficientes pour la recombinaison homologue (RH) présentent un ralentissement des fourches de réplication, un nombre aberrant de centrosomes et une aneuploïdie même en absence de stress exogène (Bertrand P 2003, Daboussi F 2005, 2008, Deng 1999, 2002, Griffin 2000, Kraakman-van der Zwet 2002). De plus, la fréquence des mitoses présentant des chromosomes surnuméraires est plus élevée dans ces cellules.L’ensemble des ces résultats suggéraient que le ralentissement des fourches de réplication dans les cellules déficientes pour la RH pourrait avoir un impact direct sur la formation de centrosomes surnuméraires. De plus, nous voulions savoir si cela pouvait également influencer la ségrégation des chromosomes au cours de la mitose. Les résultats que nous avons obtenus sont rassemblés dans l’article intitulé : “Homologous Recombination protects against mitotic defects and unbalanced chromosome segregation caused by spontaneous replication stress”.Le traitement des cellules compétentes pour la RH avec 5µM d’hydroxyurée (HU), un inhibiteur de l’enzyme de synthèse des dNTPs, induit un ralentissement des fourches de réplication parfaitement comparable à celui observé dans les cellules déficientes pour la RH. Après traitement à l’HU des cellules compétentes pour la RH, la fréquence de mitoses présentant des chromosomes surnuméraires augmente et devient similaire à la fréquence de mitoses avec des chromosomes surnuméraires pour les cellules déficientes pour la HR non traitées à l’HU. Nous avons mesuré l’impact de l’HU sur l’apparition des ponts anaphasiques et sur des défauts de ségrégation des chromosomes lors de la mitose. En l’absence de traitement, nous observons une fréquence plus élevée de ponts anaphasiques et de défauts de ségrégation dans des cellules déficientes pour la RH. Des traitements avec 5µM d’HU augmentent la fréquence des ponts anaphasiques et des erreurs de ségrégation dans les cellules compétentes pour la RH, pour atteindre un niveau comparable aux cellules déficientes pour la RH. Ainsi, une altération de la dynamique de réplication consécutive à une déficience de RH ou à un traitment avec de faibles doses d’HU induit des défauts au cours de la mitose. Un lien direct entre une dynamique de réplication anormale et l’apparition d’un nombre aberrant de centrosomes pourrait être la persistance en mitose d’ADN non répliqué ou endommagé.  Comme l’ADN non répliqué ou les fourches bloquées induisent la formation d’ADN simple brin couvert par RPA, nous avons compté le nombre de cellules en G2/M présentant des foyers de RPA, et observé que la fraction de cellules ayant plus de 5 foyers de RPA augmente dans des cellules déficientes pour Brca2. En conclusion, nous proposons un lien direct entre des altérations de la cinétique de réplication, l’apparition de centrosomes surnuméraires et des défauts de ségrégation des chromosomes en mitose dans les cellules déficientes pour la RH même non soumises à un stress exogène. L’utilisation de faibles doses d’HU dans des cellules compétentes pour la RH mime les phénotypes observés dans les cellules déficientes pour la RH et confirme notre modèle.Nous avons également cherché à comprendre les causes du ralentissement des fourches de réplication observé dans les cellules déficientes pour la RH. Il est ainsi possible que les arrêts de fourches spontanés soient une conséquence d’un stress oxydatif endogène. Dans les cellules compétentes pour la RH, le redémarrage des fourches bloquées est possible et assure une progression normale de la réplication de l’ADN. Ceci favorise une ségrégation équilibrée des chromosomes, le maintien de la diploïdie et la stabilité du génome. Dans des cellules déficientes pour la RH, les blocages de fourches devraient être délétères puisque les principaux mécanismes de redémarrage des fourches ne sont pas fonctionnels. De plus, l’arrêt prolongé des fourches ainsi que les cassures double brin générées par l’effondrement des fourches devraient activer des voies de signalisation. Nous avons néanmoins observé que les cellules ne sont pas bloquées dans le cycle cellulaire, ce qui suggère qu’un seuil supérieur de dommages doive être atteint pour induire l’arrêt du cycle. Les stress endogènes ne semblent donc pas suffisamment élevés pour atteindre ce seuil : même si l’ensemble des fourches parcourant le génome sont ralenties, l’activation d’origines cryptiques permet de compenser et ainsi de maintenir la progression dans le cycle. Mais puisque les cellules ne sont pas arrêtées dans le cycle, des fourches bloquées, de l’ADN endommagé ou non répliqué pourraient persister jusqu’à la transition G2/M et in fine perturber le déroulement de la mitose. Des centrosomes multipolaires provoquent la formation de fuseaux multipolaires et favorisent la ségrégation déséquilibrée des chromosomes, entraînant l’aneuploïdie, la déstabilisation du génome et le développement de cancers. / HR deficient cells show slow replication kinetics, aberrant centrosome number and aneuploidy even in the absence of any exogenous stress (Bertrand P 2003, Daboussi F 2005, 2008, Deng 1999, 2002, Griffin 2000, Kraakman-van der Zwet 2002). Frequency of mitosis with extra centrosomes is elevated and replication kinetics decreased in HR deficient compared to HR proficient cells, in the absence of exogenous stress. Thus the question arose, if replication slowing down in HR deficient cells has direct impact on the appearance of supernumerary centrosomes. Furthermore we wanted to know if this might directly impact chromosome segregation. The results we gained are brought together in the paper “Homologous recombination suppression causes spontaneous mitotic alterations through endogenous replication stress”. By treating our HR proficient cells with 5µM HU we found the perfect concentration to mimic replication dynamics of HR deficient cells in an HR proficient background. This concentration was applied to HR proficient cells. After HU treatment the frequency of mitosis with extra centrosomes was elevated in HR proficient cells. Now they showed the same frequency of mitosis with extra centrosomes, than unchallenged HR deficient cells. We measured the impact of HU treatment on occurrence of anaphase bridges or aberrant mitotic segregation. In the absence of treatment higher frequency of anaphase bridges and aberrant mitotic segregation was detected for HR deficient cells. With 5µM HU the frequency of anaphase bridges and aberrant mitosis could be elevated in HR proficient cells. Now they showed aberrant mitotic features with the same frequency than unchallenged HR deficient cells. A direct link between abnormal replication kinetics and aberrant centrosomes might be unreplicated or damaged DNA, that enter mitosis. Unreplicated or blocked DNA might harbour ss DNA bound RPA. Thus we counted G2/M cells with RPA foci. Indeed the fraction of cells that harbour more than 5 RPA foci was elevated in Brca2 deficient in comparison to Brca2 proficient cells. In conclusion we propose a direct link between delayed replication, supernumerary centrosomes and aberrant chromosome segregation in unchallenged HR deficient cells. If we mimicked replication kinetics of HR deficient cells in an HR proficient background, we also mimicked frequency of mitosis with extra centrosome number and aberrant chromosome segregation. Furthermore we investigated the causes of replication slowing down in HR deficient cells. It can be hypothesized that endogenous oxidative stress is implicated in spontaneous fork arrest. In HR proficient cells, reactivation of stalled replication forks and therefore normal replication progression is assured. This favours balanced chromosome segregation, diploidy and genetic stability.In HR deficient cells, replication fork blockage might be detrimental as the main restart mechanism for blocked forks is absent. Prolonged fork blockage or DSB’s arising by fork collapse or resolution of blocked replication forks might activate signalling pathways. However cells are not arrested in cell cycle progression, suggesting that a threshold should be reached to activate cell cycle arrest. Endogenous stress is not sufficient high to reach this threshold. Replication is genome wide slowed down. In this context, the activation of cryptic origins compensates at least partly the slow replication velocity. However, because cells were not arrested in cell cycle progression, some blocked replication forks and damaged or unreplicated DNA regions might persist until G2/M phase and affect centrosome duplication and chromosome segregation. Multipolar centrosomes cause multipolar spindles and favour unbalanced chromosome segregation leading to aneuploidy, genetic instability and cancer development.

La recombinaison homologue est un mécanisme de réparation de l’ADN extrêmement contrôlé et particulièrement chez les eucaryotes supérieurs. Dans les cellules méiotiques de ces derniers, où les cassures doubles brin de l’ADN sont programmées, les voies de crossing-over de la recombinaison homologue, qui génèrent de nouvelles combinaisons de gènes, sont restreintes. Dans les cellules somatiques, la recombinaison illégitime, qui assure majoritairement la réparation des cassures double brin de l’ADN, limite l’intégration ciblée du transgène par recombinaison homologue. Les entreprises de biotechnologie convoitent de maitriser la recombinaison homologue afin de contrôler d’une part le brassage génomique qui a lieu pendant la méiose, et d’autre part l’intégration du transgène dans le génome. Cette étude a porté sur le développement d’outils afin d’atteindre ces deux objectifs. Afin d’augmenter le brassage du génome, ayant lieu pendant la méiose, une version du promoteur OsDmc1b, active dans les cellules méiotiques, a été caractérisée chez le maïs. Des plantes sur-exprimant le gène ZmSpo11.1, sous contrôle de ce promoteur, ont ainsi été développées afin d’obtenir des lignées potentiellement hyper-recombinantes. Si la surexpression de ZmSpo11.1 permet effectivement d’augmenter le taux de crossing-over, il pourra être utilisé par les sélectionneurs afin d’accélérer l’introgression d’allèles d’intérêt dans des variétés élites. Concernant la mise en place d’une technique de ciblage de gène, deux stratégies, reposant sur l’utilisation de la méganucléase I-SceI, ont été testées. La démarche a nécessité trois éléments : un locus cible contenant le site de coupure I-SceI, une matrice de réparation et la séquence codant I-SceI (ou I-SceI::GR). La première stratégie, consistant à retransformer les lignées présentant le locus cible avec la matrice de réparation et I-SceI, ne semble pas exploitable car aucun évènement de ciblage de gène n’a été mis en évidence. La seconde stratégie, reposant sur l’assemblage des trois éléments par croisement, est beaucoup plus prometteuse. Malgré la faible activité d’I-SceI::GR, des évènements de recombinaison homologue ont été observés dans les tissus foliaires de certaines plantes. Du cal embryogène, développé à partir de ces dernières, a permis de régénérer des plantes présentant des évènements de ciblage de gène. Ces travaux ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives dans l’élaboration contrôlée d’OGM. / Homologous recombination is a DNA repair mechanism highly regulated in higher eukaryotes. In their meiotic cells, where DNA double-stranded breaks are programmed, the crossing-over pathway of homologous recombination, which generates new gene combinations, is limited in activity and genomic distribution. In somatic cells, illegitimate recombination, which mainly ensures DNA double-strand repair, limits the targeted integration of transgenes by homologous recombination. Biotechnology companies aim to master homologous recombination to control on the one hand the genomic mixing that occurs during meiosis, and on other hand, the integration of transgenes into the genome. This study focuses on the development of tools to achieve these two objectives.To increase genome mixing occurring during meiosis, a version of the OsDmc1b promoter active in maize meiotic cells was isolated. Then, plants over-expressing the ZmSpo11.1 gene under control of this promoter have been developed to obtain potentially hyper-recombinant lines. If ZmSPO11.1 overexpression increases the crossing over rate, it can be used by breeders to accelerate the introgression of alleles of interest into elite varieties. For the establishment of a gene targeting technique, two strategies based on the use of the I-SceI meganuclease were tested. These approaches involved the use of three elements which are: a target locus containing the cleavage site of I-SceI, a repair template and the sequence encoding I-SceI (or ISceI::GR). The first strategy, consisting of the retransformation of target locus lines with the repair template and I-SceI, does not seem workable because no gene targeting events were isolated. The second strategy, based on the assembly of the three components by crossing, is more promising. Despite the low activity of I-SceI::GR, homologous recombination events were observed in leaf tissues of certain plants. Embryogenic callus, developed from these plants, permitted the regeneration of plants with gene targeting events. This work opens new perspectives in the development of controlled GMO production.

Les tumeurs mammaires sont connues pour présenter une grande hétérogénéité intratumorale qui contribue à l’échec thérapeutique et à la progression de la maladie. L’origine de dette hétérogénéité s’explique principalement par l’organisation hiérarchique des tissus tumoraux où plusieurs sous-populations de cellules souches de cancer du sein (bCSC) sont capables de s’auto-renouveler et de maintenir l’architecture oligoclonale de la tumeur. Dans la mesure où les bCSC stimulent la croissance tumorale, résistent aux thérapies conventionnelles et initient le développement des métastases, il est indispensable de développer des thérapies spécifiques ciblant ces cellules. L’élaboration d’une telle stratégie nécessite la compréhension des propriétés moléculaires intrinsèques des bCSC. Pour mieux comprendre leur biologie, nous avons isolé les bCSC de différentes xénogreffes dérivées de tumeurs de patientes et établit leurs profil d’expression génique. Nous avons identifié un programme transcriptionnel pouvant être impliqué dans la réduction du stress réplicatif (SR) des bCSC . Nous avons montré que comparé aux non-bCSC, les bCSC présentent une sur-activation de la recombinaison homologue qui leur permet de réduire leur niveau de SR. Nous avons ensuite montré en réalisant un essai clinique que l’inhibition de cette voie permet de les sensibiliser à des agents génotoxique. Ces travaux identifient le SR comme le talon d’Achille des bCSC et mettent en évidence la recombinaison homologue comme cible potentielle pour sensibiliser les BCSC aux thérapies conventionnelles. / Breast tumors are known to present a major intratumoral heterogeneity that contributes to therapy failure and disease progression. The origin of this cellular heterogeneity is mainly explained by a hierarchical organization of tumor tissues where several subpopulations of self-renewing breast cancer stem cells (bCSCs) sustain the long-term oligoclonal maintenance of the neoplasm. bCSCs drive tumor growth, resist to conventional therapies and initiate metastasis development. Thus, developing bCSC-targeting therapies is becoming a major challenge requiring the understanding of the unique molecular circuitry of bCSC as compared to non-bCSC. To better understand the biology of these cells, we isolated bCSCs from different patient–derived xenografts (PDXs), derived fom breast tumors, and established their gene expression profiles. We identified a bCSC core transcriptional program that may be implicated in the reduction of the replicative stress in CSC: overexpression of genes implicated in dNTP metabolism and homologous recombination (HR). Our results show that HR plays a major role in SR regulation of bCSC and that bCSC are more resistant to RS than non-bCSC, We realized a preclinical assay in PDX and showed that HR inhibition prevent bCSC expansion Cisplatin-induced, suggesting a sensitization of the bCSC to the chemotherapy. Our results identify replication stress as the Achilles’ heel of bCSC and highlights HR as potential targets for anti-bCSC therapy.