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台灣自從1987年政府宣佈解嚴後，政治上逐漸轉型為自由民主國家，目前正面臨到民主鞏固與民主深化的問題。在自由化、民主化的過程中，多數專制與社會專制乃是民主社會在政治上必須防範的罪惡。色情出版品受到社會專制的壓抑由來已久，審查制度在任何國家中，普遍以不受質疑的型態存在。但在民主社會中，吾人必須重視審查制度與言論自由之間存在的爭執問題。色情不被社會道德所允許，主要的原因在於傳統上「性」被視為不宜公開展示或談論的議題，因為它的本質是粗鄙的、令人難堪的、直接訴諸本能衝動的。但當歷史上偉大的作家或藝術家同樣以「性」作為表現或探討的主題時，吾人卻認為它是「藝術」而非「色情」。因此，色情與藝術的概念顯然不易區分。John Stuart Mill在《自由論》一書中，曾經強調意見自由與發表自由對於人類精神福祉的必要性。他最主要的論點是：如果有任何意見被迫緘默，那個意見可能是正確的。否定這一點，等於假設吾人不可能發生錯誤。吾人必須使色情爭議問題有充分的討論空間，否則等於假設禁絕色情的言論不可能發生錯誤。 自由主義者與基進女性主義者對於色情出版品問題，存在著理論基礎上根本的差異。前者從保障言論自由的觀點，主張吾人享有消費色情出版品的權利；後者則從維護性別平等的觀點，認為色情出版品在本質上含有貶抑婦女地位的成分。上述爭議的解決有賴於一種折衷的觀點。針對色情出版品的審查問題，一般人多僅重視Mill在《自由論》一書中所揭示的自由原則，進而推論其反對色情出版品的審查或禁絕。但此種推論忽略了其在《婦女的屈從》一書中，強烈反對婦女屈從的合法地位觀點。因此，在探討色情出版品審查問題時，不能僅從Mill的自由主義觀點切入，必須兼顧其性別平等的觀點。在審查制度存在的前提下，吾人應從Mill自由主義與性別平等並重的觀點，來研究色情出版品審查制度的相關問題，並探討社會所能合法施加於個人的權力之性質與限度。另外，對於色情出版品所引起的言論自由問題，從涉己行為與涉人行為區分的基礎上，來分析應如何保障色情言論自由，並給予適當的管制。 在《孟子》一書中，告子曾說：「食色，性也。仁，內也，非外也；義，外也，非內也」。可知喜好美色在中國文化中被視為與人們天生的本性有關，但社會輿論卻將色情問題視為高度禁忌的的議題。就色情問題的爭議而言，過去深受儒家思想影響的我國人民，實在無法如同先進民主國家一般，從自由、民主、人權等概念來理解它。審查制度可能造成一種習慣性的意見，在某種特定的價值基礎上，告訴人們何者為善、何者為惡，不利於多元意見的形成。在自由民主國家中，如果一般人傾向於接受習慣性的意見，將是民主社會最大的障礙。因此，吾人不希望審查制度成為社會加於人民思想的束縛，因為社會專制比政治專制更具威脅性。前者的迫害是無形的；後者則是有形的。色情出版品所以被一般人視為禁忌，與社會作為集體的意見帶給人民的負面形象有關。如果從言論自由與性別平等並重的觀點來看，不應認為它在本質上必然含有造成或加深女性屈從地位的成分。就我國的審查制度而言，現行法令重視對於色情出版品所採取的禁絕、壓制措施，但嚴重忽略了與它相關的保障。因此，本文將摒除傳統父權主義及道德對於色情問題的思維，從政治民主中一貫強調的「自由」價值，與女性主義所主張的性別平等觀點，來探討色情出版品的審查問題，藉以了解如何維護人們消費色情的自由，並避免其造成或加深婦女的屈從地位。 關鍵詞：色情、言論自由、性別平等、自由原則、自由主義、基進女性主義、社會專制、John Stuart Mill

A presente dissertação trata do problema dos direitos culturais sob a ótica do utilitarismo liberal de John Stuart Mill. Objetiva-se a inserção da filosofia política do autor nas discussões que vêm sendo travadas nas últimas décadas por liberais e comunitaristas a partir da colocação do problema filosófico da identidade. Para tanto, busca-se desfazer frequentes equívocos e apresentar uma leitura integrada da filosofia de Mill com base na análise criteriosa de seus escritos, auxiliada por seus mais eminentes intérpretes. Pretende-se demonstrar que é de uma fundamental e prévia compreensão utilitarista, bem como de uma particular posição acerca do modo de acesso à verdade, que decorrem as convicções liberais e a centralidade da autonomia individual em seu pensamento. Estabelecidas essas premissas, verifica-se que o estado milliano, ao dispensar a convicção na neutralidade da esfera pública que decorre do pensamento liberal contratualista usualmente professado, mostra-se compatível em tese com a tarefa de garantir direitos culturais. Ao mesmo tempo em que sua visão ampla acerca dos bens que contribuem para a felicidade é capaz de posicionar a cultura no cálculo hedonístico individual, com reflexos na quantificação da utilidade em vista da felicidade geral, a defesa de Mill da autonomia e da diversidade parece poder justificar uma especial atenção ao contexto social que sirva para a expressão máxima da individualidade. / This dissertation deals with the problem of cultural rights from the viewpoint of the liberal utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill. It intends to include the author‘s political philosophy in the debates that have been held in recent decades between liberals and communitarians starting from the approach of the philosophical problem of identity. To this end, we try to undo common misconceptions and provide an integrated reading of Mill's philosophy based on careful analysis of his writings, aided by his most eminent interpreters. We attempt to demonstrate that it is based on a previous fundamental adhesion to utilitarianism, as well as from a particular position regarding the access to the truth, that arise the liberal convictions and the centrality of autonomy in his doctrine. Given these premises, we could find that the Millian state, exempting the assumption on the neutrality of public sphere derived from the liberal contractarian doctrine usually professed, reveals itself theoretically compatible with the task of guaranteeing cultural rights. Whilst Mill‘s broad view regarding goods that contribute to happiness is capable of dragging culture into the hedonistic calculus, which affects the measurement of utility over general happiness, his defense of autonomy and diversity seems to justify a special attention to social context which maximize the expression of individuality.

本文從個人、國家和世界三個層面來重新建構約翰彌爾的公眾參與理論。其公眾參與理論包含了公民精神和公民參與這兩個部份。公民精神主要強調合作的精神，天才和菁英組成的知識階級公民必須和其他大眾階級的公民合作，才可以減少痛苦得到快樂，唯有合作才能讓每個人可以充分運用到自己的能力，享受到高級樂趣，得到個人的幸福，也讓社會獲得更多的效益。合作的精神必須透過實際的參與才可以學習，因此參與本身具有教育的功能。彌爾認為公民精神必須透過國家內部的地方和中央雙軌式的參與才可以培養，由知識階級擔任引導的角色，在參與過程中協助大眾階級的學習。這種方式擴展到世界上就是文明國家對野蠻國家的帝國主義干預。殖民地不適用於不干預原則，因為他們必須透過和統治者的合作，才能學習如何運用自己的能力來得到幸福。 / This study tries to reconstruct John Stuart Mill’s theory of public participation from three perspectives: individual, national and international. This theory consists of an account of citizenship as well as an account of citizen participation. At the core of Mill’s idea of citizenship is cooperation between intelligent citizens, which include geniuses and elites, and the masses. By cooperation, people can make best use of their capacities, and attain their own higher pleasures and ultimately happiness. This citizen spirit can only be cultivated through political participation, and thus it has implications on education policy. The purpose of educating the masses is to help them develop and use their intellectual ability, and to do so intelligent citizens must assume the role of leading their fellow citizens with regard to political participation. And only from this perspective can we truly understand Mill’s theory of international intervention – or liberal imperialism, according to which civilized states are allowed to intervene the barbarian ones. Colonized population must cooperate with and learn from their rulers – that is to say, to conduct their own experiments in living under their colonizer’s tutelage.

A presente dissertação trata do problema dos direitos culturais sob a ótica do utilitarismo liberal de John Stuart Mill. Objetiva-se a inserção da filosofia política do autor nas discussões que vêm sendo travadas nas últimas décadas por liberais e comunitaristas a partir da colocação do problema filosófico da identidade. Para tanto, busca-se desfazer frequentes equívocos e apresentar uma leitura integrada da filosofia de Mill com base na análise criteriosa de seus escritos, auxiliada por seus mais eminentes intérpretes. Pretende-se demonstrar que é de uma fundamental e prévia compreensão utilitarista, bem como de uma particular posição acerca do modo de acesso à verdade, que decorrem as convicções liberais e a centralidade da autonomia individual em seu pensamento. Estabelecidas essas premissas, verifica-se que o estado milliano, ao dispensar a convicção na neutralidade da esfera pública que decorre do pensamento liberal contratualista usualmente professado, mostra-se compatível em tese com a tarefa de garantir direitos culturais. Ao mesmo tempo em que sua visão ampla acerca dos bens que contribuem para a felicidade é capaz de posicionar a cultura no cálculo hedonístico individual, com reflexos na quantificação da utilidade em vista da felicidade geral, a defesa de Mill da autonomia e da diversidade parece poder justificar uma especial atenção ao contexto social que sirva para a expressão máxima da individualidade. / This dissertation deals with the problem of cultural rights from the viewpoint of the liberal utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill. It intends to include the author‘s political philosophy in the debates that have been held in recent decades between liberals and communitarians starting from the approach of the philosophical problem of identity. To this end, we try to undo common misconceptions and provide an integrated reading of Mill's philosophy based on careful analysis of his writings, aided by his most eminent interpreters. We attempt to demonstrate that it is based on a previous fundamental adhesion to utilitarianism, as well as from a particular position regarding the access to the truth, that arise the liberal convictions and the centrality of autonomy in his doctrine. Given these premises, we could find that the Millian state, exempting the assumption on the neutrality of public sphere derived from the liberal contractarian doctrine usually professed, reveals itself theoretically compatible with the task of guaranteeing cultural rights. Whilst Mill‘s broad view regarding goods that contribute to happiness is capable of dragging culture into the hedonistic calculus, which affects the measurement of utility over general happiness, his defense of autonomy and diversity seems to justify a special attention to social context which maximize the expression of individuality.

A presente dissertação trata do problema dos direitos culturais sob a ótica do utilitarismo liberal de John Stuart Mill. Objetiva-se a inserção da filosofia política do autor nas discussões que vêm sendo travadas nas últimas décadas por liberais e comunitaristas a partir da colocação do problema filosófico da identidade. Para tanto, busca-se desfazer frequentes equívocos e apresentar uma leitura integrada da filosofia de Mill com base na análise criteriosa de seus escritos, auxiliada por seus mais eminentes intérpretes. Pretende-se demonstrar que é de uma fundamental e prévia compreensão utilitarista, bem como de uma particular posição acerca do modo de acesso à verdade, que decorrem as convicções liberais e a centralidade da autonomia individual em seu pensamento. Estabelecidas essas premissas, verifica-se que o estado milliano, ao dispensar a convicção na neutralidade da esfera pública que decorre do pensamento liberal contratualista usualmente professado, mostra-se compatível em tese com a tarefa de garantir direitos culturais. Ao mesmo tempo em que sua visão ampla acerca dos bens que contribuem para a felicidade é capaz de posicionar a cultura no cálculo hedonístico individual, com reflexos na quantificação da utilidade em vista da felicidade geral, a defesa de Mill da autonomia e da diversidade parece poder justificar uma especial atenção ao contexto social que sirva para a expressão máxima da individualidade. / This dissertation deals with the problem of cultural rights from the viewpoint of the liberal utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill. It intends to include the author‘s political philosophy in the debates that have been held in recent decades between liberals and communitarians starting from the approach of the philosophical problem of identity. To this end, we try to undo common misconceptions and provide an integrated reading of Mill's philosophy based on careful analysis of his writings, aided by his most eminent interpreters. We attempt to demonstrate that it is based on a previous fundamental adhesion to utilitarianism, as well as from a particular position regarding the access to the truth, that arise the liberal convictions and the centrality of autonomy in his doctrine. Given these premises, we could find that the Millian state, exempting the assumption on the neutrality of public sphere derived from the liberal contractarian doctrine usually professed, reveals itself theoretically compatible with the task of guaranteeing cultural rights. Whilst Mill‘s broad view regarding goods that contribute to happiness is capable of dragging culture into the hedonistic calculus, which affects the measurement of utility over general happiness, his defense of autonomy and diversity seems to justify a special attention to social context which maximize the expression of individuality.

Le but de cette recherche doctorale est de mettre au jour une conception spécifique du libéralisme au XIXè siècle qui rendait possible la cohabitation des exigences libérales de respect de l’individu et de ses droits ainsi que des exigences nationales de vie en communauté et d’identité. Partant du principe que de nombreux auteurs ne considéraient pas que le concept de nationalité entrait en contradiction avec les valeurs libérales à cette époque, nous estimons qu’Alexis de Tocqueville, ainsi que John Stuart Mill, proposent la forme la plus cohérente et aboutie de réflexion en la matière, et ce à travers un libéralisme dit « d’esprit » que nous extrairons de leur pensée commune. En effet, alors qu’ils cherchent à contrecarrer les effets néfastes du matérialisme qui aurait comme principale conséquence d’abaisser l’âme des individus et de les priver de liberté, ils mettent au point une approche qui empêche la matérialisation ou la cristallisation complète des références proposées comme point de repère aux citoyens. / Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This diploma thesis is thematically oriented towards early theories of public opinion of the late 19th century. Concretely, it deals with the theories of Alexis de Tocqueville, John Stuart Mill and James Bryce. The thesis presents an analysis, interpretation and a comparison of these three thinkers and concentrates on the following topics: the definition of the term "public opinion"; the formation of public opinion; the influence individuals, groups and society as a whole have on public opinion; and the role the media play in public opinion. Further, it shows how these authors' thoughts are continued in selected 20th century theories of public opinion, namely in Walter Lippmann's concept of public opinion, the Two-step flow model developed by Elihu Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld, Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann's Spiral of Silence, Irving Crespi's theory of the Public Opinion Process and Giovanni Sartori's "cascade model" of public opinion. Key words: public opinion, media, Two-step flow model, Spiral of Silence, Public Opinion Process, cascade model of public opinion, Alexis de Tocqeuville, John Stuart Mill, James Bryce, W. Lippmann, E. Katz, P. Lazarsfeld, E. Noelle-Neumann, I. Crespi, G. Sartori

Práce se zaměřuje na zjištění možných překážek, které ženám angažujícím se v komunální politice tuto činnost znesnadňují, případně jim ve vstupu do komunální politiky brání. Terénní šetření formou intenzivního výzkumu se omezuje na oblast Třeboňska.