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Showing 1 to 6 of 6 (0.053 seconds)Spelling suggestions: "subject:"7molecular semiconductors"" "subject:"bimolecular semiconductors""
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Molecular semiconductors based on transition metal complexesSilber, Georg Thomas January 2014 (has links)
The field of organic, or molecular, electronics is currently dominated by both polymeric and molecular organic materials, while considerably less research efforts are devoted to transition metal based complexes. Despite this, such compounds can offer advantages including additional tuneability of the spatial distribution and energy levels of the frontier orbitals or stable paramagnetic species by manipulating the metal-ligand interactions which may be accomplished selectively modifying the ligand framework or changing the central metal. A series of Ni(II) and Cu(II) acenaphthenequinone bis(thiosemicarbazonato) complexes were prepared and characterised using X-ray diffraction, cyclic voltammetry, UV/Vis and EPR spectroscopy, as well as magnetic susceptibility and field effect transistor measurements and computational calculations. The observed charge transport properties are discussed in terms of the structural and electronic trends both within the series and in the context of the two more established analogue series, namely the bis(3-thiosemicarbazonato) and the diacetyl bis(3-thiosemicarbazonato) metal complexes. The Ni(II) analogues of the acenaphthenequinone bis(thiosemicarbazonato) family were found to exhibit p-type charge transport with mobilities between 10¯9 and 10¯5 cm2V¯1s¯1 depending on the exocyclic substitutent and resulting packing pattern. The observed results were rationalised in terms of the reorganisation energy and the charge transfer integrals. A series of 4,4`-phenyl-substituted nickel dithiolene complexes was synthesised and characterised. Initially with the aim of investigating the effect of varying the para-substituent of the phenyl ring on the charge transport properties, these efforts were undermined by the poor processability of these molecules by both vapour and solution phase methods. As a result, n-type charge transport could be observed under ambient conditions only for the phenyl and 4-bromo-phenyl substituted analogues, but the device performance was extremely poor. Nonetheless, the calculated reorganisation energies, charge transfer integrals and predicted mobilities were encouraging and may prompt further work on these materials. An all-organic analogue series of 4,4`-(4-halogen-phenyl)-substituted tetrathiafulvalenes was also investigated. The hole transport materials displayed mobilities of between 10¯3 and 10¯7 cm2V¯1s¯1 for both solution and vapour processed devices, depending on the nature of the halogen. These results are discussed in terms of their molecular properties and the calculated charge transport parameters and put in context of the performance of the 4,4`-bis(phenyl)-substituted benchmark analogue. Interestingly, the obtained crystal structure of the bromo-substituted analogue showed the molecule to be in the cis conformation, an observation that is unprecedented for simple, 4-phenyl,5-hydrogen substituted tetrathiafulvalenes, and indicates that both conformers are initially formed. Finally, a series of 4,4`-(2-alkyl)thienyl substituted nickel dithiolene salts and tetrathiafulvalenes was synthesised and characterised. While the charge transport properties of the former were not further investigated due to the low solubility of the neutral species, the tetrathiafulvalenes were incorporated into FET devices via solution processing. All exhibited comparatively high conductivity at room temperature (1.6x10¯3S m¯1), exceeding that of their quarterthiophene analogues. This masked the observed gate effects but indicates potential applications as conducting or charge transfer materials. While the two resolved analogues displayed trans geometry in the single crystal structures, powder diffraction and preliminary DSC measurements indicate that the materials displayed at least one additional phase, which once again likely corresponded to the cis conformer.
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Photoelectron spectroscopy of polarons in molecular semiconductorsWinkler, Stefanie 05 April 2016 (has links)
Das fundamentale Verständnis von Ladungsträgern in molekularen Halbleitern, die typischerweise als Polaronen bezeichnet werden, ist unverzichtbar, wenn es um das Design besonders leistungsfähiger (opto)elektronischer Bauelemente geht. Die vorliegende Arbeit hat zum Ziel ein umfangreiches Bild der Energetik von Polaronen in organischen Halbleitern zu erhalten. Zunächst geht es darum einen Probenaufbau zu finden, der es nicht nur ermöglicht Ladungsträger zu generieren, sondern auch ihre elektronische Struktur unter Verwendung von komplementären Photoemissionstechniken – Rötngen-, Ultraviolett- und inverse Photoelektronenspektroskopie - aufzuklären. Das Probenkonzept basiert darauf, dass molekulare Filme, die eine niedrigere Ionisierungsenergie als die Austrittsarbeit des zugrunde liegenden Substrates aufweisen, Fermi-level Pinning zeigen. In diesem Fall wären die höchsten besetzten Zustände der neutralen molekularen Schicht energetisch oberhalb des Substrat-Fermi-Levels angeordnet, wodurch zum Erhalt des elektronischen Gleichgewichts die Notwendigkeit für einen Ladungstransfer gegeben ist. Da die starke elektronische Kopplung zwischen Molekülen und Metallen die spektrale Information der Überschussladungsträger verändern könnte, wird die Metalloberfläche durch eine ultradünne Zwischenschicht passiviert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es durch die vorliegende starke on-site Coulomb Repulsion zur Aufspaltung des höchsten besetzen molekularen Niveaus in ein besetztes und ein unbesetztes Sub-niveau kommt. Dies widerspricht der seit Jahren etablierten Vorstellung von einem einfach besetzten Niveau in der Bandlücke des neutralen molekularen Halbleiters. Unter zusätzlicher Berücksichtigung der inter-site Coulomb Repulsion zwischen Molekülionen und neutralen Molekülen, sowie der Energieniveau Verbiegung kann schließlich ein vollständiges Bild entwickelt werden, das die etablierte Vorstellung der Energieniveaus von Ladungsträgern in molekularen Halbleitern ersetzen soll. / Understanding the nature of charge carriers in molecular semiconductors, typically termed "polarons", is indispensable for rational material design targeting future superior (opto-)electronic device performance. The present work addresses this fundamental issue to derive a comprehensive picture of polarons in organic semiconductors. Conceptual work is dedicated to identifying a sample structure, which allows both, deliberately generating charged molecules and applying the complementary photoemission techniques X-ray, ultraviolet and inverse photoelectron spectroscopy in order to assess the polaron energetics. The sample concept is based on the fact that molecular layers exhibiting an ionization energy lower than the work function of the supporting substrate show Fermi-level pinning. There, as the substrate Fermi-level is moved into the occupied density of states of the molecular adsorbate, electron transfer occurs from the molecules to the substrate. Because strong electron coupling between molecules and eg. metal surfaces might mask or alter the spectral information of excess charge carriers, such interaction needs to be inhibited by implementation of an ultrathin passivating interlayer. The comprehensive results provide evidence that the highest occupied molecular orbital level is split into an upper unoccupied and a lower occupied sub-level due to strong on-site Coulomb interaction. This finding is in marked contrast to what has been assumed for decades, where a singly occupied level was proposed to lie within the gap of the neutral molecular semiconductor. Moreover, taking into account the inter-site Coulomb interaction between molecular cations and surrounding neutral molecules, as well as energy-level bending, finally, a complete picture of the energetics associated with polarons in molecular semiconductors could be derived, which aims at replacing common perceptions.
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Investigation Of Phase Separation In Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells Via Self-assembly Approach And Role Of Organic Fluorine In Design Of n-type Molecular SemiconductorsSiram, Raja Bhaskar Kanth 10 1900 (has links) (PDF)
The present thesis is focused on rational design and synthesis of π-conjugated donoracceptor-donor (D-A-D) type oligomers and D-A type copolymers. Thesis is organized in seven chapters, apart from introduction remaining six chapters are grouped into two parts (A and B). Part A deals with Chapters 2, 3, 4 and Part B contains chapters 5, 6 and 7. A brief discussion on the content of individual chapters is provided below.
Chapter 1 discusses the introduction to organic solar cell with operating principles and effect of spinodal decomposition on stability of the devices is presented. The status and literature related to the improvement of life time of the organic solar cells by self-assembly approach has been explored. In addition, design and synthesis of the fluorine substituted π-conjugated organic semiconductors for n-type OFETs and OLED has been discussed.
Part A
This part of the thesis attempt to address some of the challenges listed below
(1) Investigation of miscibility of binary components in bulk heterojunction solar
cells through H-bonding approach.
(2) Synthesis of new low band gap molecular semiconductors having H-bonding
sites.
(3) Fabrication of bulk heterojunction solar cell devices using these new molecules
and exploring the photovoltaics performance.
Chapter 2, donor-acceptor-donor (D-A-D) concept has been employed to design low band gap oligomers named as TTB. Barbiturate functional group has been utilized to explore the concepts of supramolecular chemistry. It is shown that, TTB molecule self-organizes via intermolecular H-bonding between barbituric acid units. Interactions between the oligothiophene subunits were also found to be important, affording nanoribbons that were observed by atomic force and transmission electron microscopy. The applicability of TTB for organic electronic applications was investigated by fabricating organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) and organic photovoltaic device. The crystalline nanoribbons were beneficial in understanding the phase morphology of PCBM and TTB blend.
Chapter 3, the self-assemble property of TTB was disrupted by the substitution of methyl group on the nitrogen of the barbituric acid moiety. The optical and electrochemical properties of the new derivative have been investigated by UV-Visible spectroscopy, photoluminescence spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. Further investigations on the effect of self-assembly on organic solar cells were carried out by fabricating BHJ and OFET. The results proved that the self-assembly within the donor moieties led to complete phase separation between the donor and acceptor which had an adverse effect on the photovoltaic performance.
Chapter 4, the conjugation of TTB was extended by the synthesis of two new copolymers by polymerizing with two oliogothiophene (terthiophene and benzobithiophene) derivatives with different donating strength. The investigation of photophysical and electrochemical properties of copolymers were studied by varying the donating strength. As we increase the donating strength of oligothiophenes, the intramolecular charge transfer band of DA copolymers was red shifted. Further, density functional theory (DFT) calculation of these materials was carried out to get insight into their photophysical properties.
Part B
This part of the thesis attempt to address some of the challenges listed below
(1) Investigation of fluorine substituted organic semiconductos like 2,2’ bithiazole
and pheanthroimidazole.
(2) Synthesis of pentafluoro phenyl appended derivatives of 2,2’ bithiazole and
pheanthroimidazole.
(3) Fabrication of OFETs and OLEDs using these new molecules and elucidated
the device performance with molecular structure.
Chapter 5, pentafluorophenyl appended 2,2’-bithiazole derivatives were synthesized. The single crystal x-ray diffraction studies shows the unusual strong type-II F•••F interactions within the distance of 2.668 Å, at an angle of 89.14° and 174.15°. It also shows the usual type-I F•••F interaction within the distance of 2.825Å, at an angle of 137.38° and 135.93°. Upon bromination type-II Br•••Br interaction was observed and the packing was further stabilized by S•••Br interactions. The conjugation was further extended with different aromatic and heteroaromatic substituents and synthesized the star shaped structure. The band gap as well as the electronic energy levels was tuned by substituting various aromatic and heteroaromatic substituents. These star shaped derivatives shows electron mobilities in the order of 10-4 to 10-3cm2/Vs.
Chapter 6, Novel D-A copolymers were synthesized by Stille condensation of electron acceptor fluorinated phenanthroimidazole with electron donors like terthiophene and benzobithiophene. Prior to that insoluble pentafluoro phenyl phenanthroimidazole was Nalkylated in presence of DMF which concurrently resulted in C-F activation of the pentafluoro phenyl moiety. As we increase the donor strength from benzobithiophene to terthiophene the absorbance spectra was red shifted from 446 nm to 482 nm in solution and 455 nm to 484 nm in solid state. The band gap of these copolymers was found to be 2.4 eV for PIBDT and 2.2 eV for PIDHTT from the absorbance spectra. The photoluminescence data shows that these materials are promising for the yellow colour as well as orange colour displays, of narrow wavelength range (FWHM 40 nm for PIBDT and 35 nm for PIDHTT), which can be achieved just by the manipulation of donor moieties in the copolymers. The preliminary electroluminiscence data shows high brightness of 888cd/m2
(orange luminescence) for PIDHTT and 410cd/m2 (yellow luminescence) for PIBDT.
Chapter 7, Acenaphtho[1,2-b]quinoxaline based donor–acceptor type low band gap
conjugated copolymers were synthesized by Stille coupling reaction with the
corresponding oligothiophene derivatives. The optical properties of the copolymers were characterized by ultraviolet-visible spectrometry while the electrochemical properties were determined by cyclic voltammetry. The band gap of these polymers was found to be in the range of 1.8-2.0 eV as calculated from the optical absorption band edge. The intense charge transfer band in absorption spectra shows the significant effect of acceptor in the copolymers. X-ray diffraction measurements show weak π–π stacking interactions between the polymer chains. The OFET devices fabricated using these co-polymers showed dominant p-channel transistor behavior with the highest mobility of 1×10-3cm2/Vs.
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Synthèse et caractérisation de matériaux semi-conducteurs pour la conversion photovoltaïque / Synthesis and characterization of organic semiconductors for voltaic applicationsBulut, Ibrahim 03 June 2015 (has links)
L’objectif de cette thèse consiste à développer des matériaux semi-conducteurs organiques efficaces pour le photovoltaïque organique. Le travail est focalisé sur l’optimisation de matériaux à caractère donneur d’électrons pour la préparation de dispositifs à hétérojonction volumique, en association avec un dérivé de fullerène comme matériau à caractère accepteur d’électrons. Plus particulièrement, il s’agit de réaliser une étude d’optimisation systématique de deux familles de référence (respectivement macromoléculaire et moléculaire) issus du laboratoire, qui ont déjà conduit à des performances photovoltaïques intéressantes. Pour cela, nous avons suivi une démarche rigoureuse et systématique en ciblant les paramètres chimiques les plus pertinents à faire varier. Afin de déterminer les propriétés des nouveaux matériaux ainsi synthétisés, des caractérisations spectroscopiques, électrochimiques, structurales, de transport de charge et photovoltaïque ont systématiquement été effectué. / The aim of this thesis is to develop efficient semi-conducting organic materials for organic photovoltaics. This work is focuses on the optimization of electron-donor organic semiconductors for the preparation of bulk heterojunction devices, in blend with a fullerene derivative used as electron-acceptor material. More specifically, it is to perform a systematic optimization study of two reference families (macromolecular and molecular respectively) from the laboratory, which have already led to interesting photovoltaic performances. For this, we followed a structured and systematic approach targeting the most relevant chemical parameters to be varied. To determine the properties of new materials synthesized, spectroscopic, electrochemical, structural, charge transport and photovoltaic characterizations were systematically made.
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Charge transport and energy levels in organic semiconductors / Ladungstransport und Energieniveaus in organischen HalbleiternWidmer, Johannes 25 November 2014 (has links) (PDF)
Organic semiconductors are a new key technology for large-area and flexible thin-film electronics. They are deposited as thin films (sub-nanometer to micrometer) on large-area substrates. The technologically most advanced applications are organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic photovoltaics (OPV). For the improvement of performance and efficiency, correct modeling of the electronic processes in the devices is essential. Reliable characterization and validation of the electronic properties of the materials is simultaneously required for the successful optimization of devices. Furthermore, understanding the relations between material structures and their key characteristics opens the path for innovative material and device design.
In this thesis, two material characterization methods are developed, respectively refined and applied: a novel technique for measuring the charge carrier mobility μ and a way to determine the ionization energy IE or the electron affinity EA of an organic semiconductor.
For the mobility measurements, a new evaluation approach for space-charge limited current (SCLC) measurements in single carrier devices is developed. It is based on a layer thickness variation of the material under investigation. In the \"potential mapping\" (POEM) approach, the voltage as a function of the device thickness V(d) at a given current density is shown to coincide with the spatial distribution of the electric potential V(x) in the thickest device. On this basis, the mobility is directly obtained as function of the electric field F and the charge carrier density n. The evaluation is model-free, i.e. a model for μ(F, n) to fit the measurement data is not required, and the measurement is independent of a possible injection barrier or potential drop at non-optimal contacts. The obtained μ(F, n) function describes the effective average mobility of free and trapped charge carriers. This approach realistically describes charge transport in energetically disordered materials, where a clear differentiation between trapped and free charges is impossible or arbitrary.
The measurement of IE and EA is performed by characterizing solar cells at varying temperature T. In suitably designed devices based on a bulk heterojunction (BHJ), the open-circuit voltage Voc is a linear function of T with negative slope in the whole measured range down to 180K. The extrapolation to temperature zero V0 = Voc(T → 0K) is confirmed to equal the effective gap Egeff, i.e. the difference between the EA of the acceptor and the IE of the donor. The successive variation of different components of the devices and testing their influence on V0 verifies the relation V0 = Egeff. On this basis, the IE or EA of a material can be determined in a BHJ with a material where the complementary value is known. The measurement is applied to a number of material combinations, confirming, refining, and complementing previously reported values from ultraviolet photo electron spectroscopy (UPS) and inverse photo electron spectroscopy (IPES).
These measurements are applied to small molecule organic semiconductors, including mixed layers. In blends of zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and C60, the hole mobility is found to be thermally and field activated, as well as increasing with charge density. Varying the mixing ratio, the hole mobility is found to increase with increasing ZnPc content, while the effective gap stays unchanged. A number of further materials and material blends are characterized with respect to hole and electron mobility and the effective gap, including highly diluted donor blends, which have been little investigated before. In all materials, a pronounced field activation of the mobility is observed. The results enable an improved detailed description of the working principle of organic solar cells and support the future design of highly efficient and optimized devices. / Organische Halbleiter sind eine neue Schlüsseltechnologie für großflächige und flexible Dünnschichtelektronik. Sie werden als dünne Materialschichten (Sub-Nanometer bis Mikrometer) auf großflächige Substrate aufgebracht. Die technologisch am weitesten fortgeschrittenen Anwendungen sind organische Leuchtdioden (OLEDs) und organische Photovoltaik (OPV). Zur weiteren Steigerung von Leistungsfähigkeit und Effizienz ist die genaue Modellierung elektronischer Prozesse in den Bauteilen von grundlegender Bedeutung. Für die erfolgreiche Optimierung von Bauteilen ist eine zuverlässige Charakterisierung und Validierung der elektronischen Materialeigenschaften gleichermaßen erforderlich. Außerdem eröffnet das Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Materialstruktur und -eigenschaften einen Weg für innovative Material- und Bauteilentwicklung.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation werden zwei Methoden für die Materialcharakterisierung entwickelt, verfeinert und angewandt: eine neuartige Methode zur Messung der Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit μ und eine Möglichkeit zur Bestimmung der Ionisierungsenergie IE oder der Elektronenaffinität EA eines organischen Halbleiters.
Für die Beweglichkeitsmessungen wird eine neue Auswertungsmethode für raumladungsbegrenzte Ströme (SCLC) in unipolaren Bauteilen entwickelt. Sie basiert auf einer Schichtdickenvariation des zu charakterisierenden Materials. In einem Ansatz zur räumlichen Abbildung des elektrischen Potentials (\"potential mapping\", POEM) wird gezeigt, dass das elektrische Potential als Funktion der Schichtdicke V(d) bei einer gegebenen Stromdichte dem räumlichen Verlauf des elektrischen Potentials V(x) im dicksten Bauteil entspricht. Daraus kann die Beweglichkeit als Funktion des elektrischen Felds F und der Ladungsträgerdichte n berechnet werden. Die Auswertung ist modellfrei, d.h. ein Modell zum Angleichen der Messdaten ist für die Berechnung von μ(F, n) nicht erforderlich. Die Messung ist außerdem unabhängig von einer möglichen Injektionsbarriere oder einer Potentialstufe an nicht-idealen Kontakten. Die gemessene Funktion μ(F, n) beschreibt die effektive durchschnittliche Beweglichkeit aller freien und in Fallenzuständen gefangenen Ladungsträger. Dieser Zugang beschreibt den Ladungstransport in energetisch ungeordneten Materialien realistisch, wo eine klare Unterscheidung zwischen freien und Fallenzuständen nicht möglich oder willkürlich ist.
Die Messung von IE und EA wird mithilfe temperaturabhängiger Messungen an Solarzellen durchgeführt. In geeigneten Bauteilen mit einem Mischschicht-Heteroübergang (\"bulk heterojunction\" BHJ) ist die Leerlaufspannung Voc im gesamten Messbereich oberhalb 180K eine linear fallende Funktion der Temperatur T. Es kann bestätigt werden, dass die Extrapolation zum Temperaturnullpunkt V0 = Voc(T → 0K) mit der effektiven Energielücke Egeff , d.h. der Differenz zwischen EA des Akzeptor-Materials und IE des Donator-Materials, übereinstimmt. Die systematische schrittweise Variation einzelner Bestandteile der Solarzellen und die Überprüfung des Einflusses auf V0 bestätigen die Beziehung V0 = Egeff. Damit kann die IE oder EA eines Materials bestimmt werden, indem man es in einem BHJ mit einem Material kombiniert, dessen komplementärer Wert bekannt ist. Messungen per Ultraviolett-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (UPS) und inverser Photoelektronenspektroskopie (IPES) werden damit bestätigt, präzisiert und ergänzt.
Die beiden entwickelten Messmethoden werden auf organische Halbleiter aus kleinen Molekülen einschließlich Mischschichten angewandt. In Mischschichten aus Zink-Phthalocyanin (ZnPc) und C60 wird eine Löcherbeweglichkeit gemessen, die sowohl thermisch als auch feld- und ladungsträgerdichteaktiviert ist. Wenn das Mischverhältnis variiert wird, steigt die Löcherbeweglichkeit mit zunehmendem ZnPc-Anteil, während die effektive Energielücke unverändert bleibt. Verschiedene weitere Materialien und Materialmischungen werden hinsichtlich Löcher- und Elektronenbeweglichkeit sowie ihrer Energielücke charakterisiert, einschließlich bisher wenig untersuchter hochverdünnter Donator-Systeme. In allen Materialien wird eine deutliche Feldaktivierung der Beweglichkeit beobachtet. Die Ergebnisse ermöglichen eine verbesserte Beschreibung der detaillierten Funktionsweise organischer Solarzellen und unterstützen die künftige Entwicklung hocheffizienter und optimierter Bauteile.
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Charge transport and energy levels in organic semiconductorsWidmer, Johannes 02 October 2014 (has links)
Organic semiconductors are a new key technology for large-area and flexible thin-film electronics. They are deposited as thin films (sub-nanometer to micrometer) on large-area substrates. The technologically most advanced applications are organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic photovoltaics (OPV). For the improvement of performance and efficiency, correct modeling of the electronic processes in the devices is essential. Reliable characterization and validation of the electronic properties of the materials is simultaneously required for the successful optimization of devices. Furthermore, understanding the relations between material structures and their key characteristics opens the path for innovative material and device design.
In this thesis, two material characterization methods are developed, respectively refined and applied: a novel technique for measuring the charge carrier mobility μ and a way to determine the ionization energy IE or the electron affinity EA of an organic semiconductor.
For the mobility measurements, a new evaluation approach for space-charge limited current (SCLC) measurements in single carrier devices is developed. It is based on a layer thickness variation of the material under investigation. In the \"potential mapping\" (POEM) approach, the voltage as a function of the device thickness V(d) at a given current density is shown to coincide with the spatial distribution of the electric potential V(x) in the thickest device. On this basis, the mobility is directly obtained as function of the electric field F and the charge carrier density n. The evaluation is model-free, i.e. a model for μ(F, n) to fit the measurement data is not required, and the measurement is independent of a possible injection barrier or potential drop at non-optimal contacts. The obtained μ(F, n) function describes the effective average mobility of free and trapped charge carriers. This approach realistically describes charge transport in energetically disordered materials, where a clear differentiation between trapped and free charges is impossible or arbitrary.
The measurement of IE and EA is performed by characterizing solar cells at varying temperature T. In suitably designed devices based on a bulk heterojunction (BHJ), the open-circuit voltage Voc is a linear function of T with negative slope in the whole measured range down to 180K. The extrapolation to temperature zero V0 = Voc(T → 0K) is confirmed to equal the effective gap Egeff, i.e. the difference between the EA of the acceptor and the IE of the donor. The successive variation of different components of the devices and testing their influence on V0 verifies the relation V0 = Egeff. On this basis, the IE or EA of a material can be determined in a BHJ with a material where the complementary value is known. The measurement is applied to a number of material combinations, confirming, refining, and complementing previously reported values from ultraviolet photo electron spectroscopy (UPS) and inverse photo electron spectroscopy (IPES).
These measurements are applied to small molecule organic semiconductors, including mixed layers. In blends of zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and C60, the hole mobility is found to be thermally and field activated, as well as increasing with charge density. Varying the mixing ratio, the hole mobility is found to increase with increasing ZnPc content, while the effective gap stays unchanged. A number of further materials and material blends are characterized with respect to hole and electron mobility and the effective gap, including highly diluted donor blends, which have been little investigated before. In all materials, a pronounced field activation of the mobility is observed. The results enable an improved detailed description of the working principle of organic solar cells and support the future design of highly efficient and optimized devices.:1. Introduction
2. Organic semiconductors and devices
2.1. Organic semiconductors
2.1.1. Conjugated π system
2.1.2. Small molecules and polymers
2.1.3. Disorder in amorphous materials
2.1.4. Polarons
2.1.5. Polaron hopping
2.1.6. Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi level
2.1.7. Quasi-Fermi levels
2.1.8. Trap states
2.1.9. Doping
2.1.10. Excitons
2.2. Interfaces and blend layers
2.2.1. Interface dipoles
2.2.2. Energy level bending
2.2.3. Injection from metal into semiconductor, and extraction
2.2.4. Excitons at interfaces
2.3. Charge transport and recombination in organic semiconductors
2.3.1. Drift transport
2.3.2. Charge carrier mobility
2.3.3. Thermally activated transport
2.3.4. Diffusion transport
2.3.5. Drift-diffusion transport
2.3.6. Space-charge limited current
2.3.7. Recombination
2.4. Mobility measurement
2.4.1. SCLC and TCLC
2.4.2. Time of flight
2.4.3. Organic field effect transistors
2.4.4. CELIV
2.5. Organic solar cells
2.5.1. Exciton diffusion towards the interface
2.5.2. Dissociation of CT states
2.5.3. CT recombination
2.5.4. Flat and bulk heterojunction
2.5.5. Transport layers
2.5.6. Thin film optics
2.5.7. Current-voltage characteristics and equivalent circuit
2.5.8. Solar cell efficiency
2.5.9. Limits of efficiency
2.5.10. Correct solar cell characterization
2.5.11. The \"O-Factor\"
3. Materials and experimental methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Device fabrication and layout
3.2.1. Layer deposition
3.2.2. Encapsulation
3.2.3. Homogeneity of layer thickness on a wafer
3.2.4. Device layout
3.3. Characterization
3.3.1. Electrical characterization
3.3.2. Sample illumination
3.3.3. Temperature dependent characterization
3.3.4. UPS
4. Simulations
5.1. Design of single carrier devices
5.1.1. General design requirements
5.1.2. Single carrier devices for space-charge limited current
5.1.3. Ohmic regime
5.1.4. Design of injection and extraction layers
5.2. Advanced evaluation of SCLC – potential mapping
5.2.1. Potential mapping by thickness variation
5.2.2. Further evaluation of the transport profile
5.2.3. Injection into and extraction from single carrier devices
5.2.4. Majority carrier approximation
5.3. Proof of principle: POEM on simulated data
5.3.1. Constant mobility
5.3.2. Field dependent mobility
5.3.3. Field and charge density activated mobility
5.3.4. Conclusion
5.4. Application: Transport characterization in organic semiconductors
5.4.1. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.2. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – temperature variation
5.4.3. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – blend ratio variation
5.4.4. Hole transport in ZnPc:C70
5.4.5. Hole transport in neat ZnPc
5.4.6. Hole transport in F4-ZnPc:C60
5.4.7. Hole transport in DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.4.8. Electron transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.9. Electron transport in neat Bis-HFl-NTCDI
5.5. Summary and discussion of the results
5.5.1. Phthalocyanine:C60 blends
5.5.2. DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.5.3. Conclusion
6. Organic solar cell characteristics: the influence of temperature
6.1. ZnPc:C60 solar cells
6.1.1. Temperature variation
6.1.2. Illumination intensity variation
6.2. Voc in flat and bulk heterojunction organic solar cells
6.2.1. Qualitative difference in Voc(I, T)
6.2.2. Interpretation of Voc(I, T)
6.3. BHJ stoichiometry variation
6.3.1. Voc upon variation of stoichiometry and contact layer
6.3.2. V0 upon stoichiometry variation
6.3.3. Low donor content stoichiometry
6.3.4. Conclusion from stoichiometry variation
6.4. Transport material variation
6.4.1. HTM variation
6.4.2. ETM variation
6.5. Donor:acceptor material variation
6.5.1. Donor variation
6.5.2. Acceptor variation
6.6. Conclusion
7. Summary and outlook
7.1. Summary
7.2. Outlook
A. Appendix
A.1. Energy pay-back of this thesis
A.2. Tables and registers / Organische Halbleiter sind eine neue Schlüsseltechnologie für großflächige und flexible Dünnschichtelektronik. Sie werden als dünne Materialschichten (Sub-Nanometer bis Mikrometer) auf großflächige Substrate aufgebracht. Die technologisch am weitesten fortgeschrittenen Anwendungen sind organische Leuchtdioden (OLEDs) und organische Photovoltaik (OPV). Zur weiteren Steigerung von Leistungsfähigkeit und Effizienz ist die genaue Modellierung elektronischer Prozesse in den Bauteilen von grundlegender Bedeutung. Für die erfolgreiche Optimierung von Bauteilen ist eine zuverlässige Charakterisierung und Validierung der elektronischen Materialeigenschaften gleichermaßen erforderlich. Außerdem eröffnet das Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Materialstruktur und -eigenschaften einen Weg für innovative Material- und Bauteilentwicklung.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation werden zwei Methoden für die Materialcharakterisierung entwickelt, verfeinert und angewandt: eine neuartige Methode zur Messung der Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit μ und eine Möglichkeit zur Bestimmung der Ionisierungsenergie IE oder der Elektronenaffinität EA eines organischen Halbleiters.
Für die Beweglichkeitsmessungen wird eine neue Auswertungsmethode für raumladungsbegrenzte Ströme (SCLC) in unipolaren Bauteilen entwickelt. Sie basiert auf einer Schichtdickenvariation des zu charakterisierenden Materials. In einem Ansatz zur räumlichen Abbildung des elektrischen Potentials (\"potential mapping\", POEM) wird gezeigt, dass das elektrische Potential als Funktion der Schichtdicke V(d) bei einer gegebenen Stromdichte dem räumlichen Verlauf des elektrischen Potentials V(x) im dicksten Bauteil entspricht. Daraus kann die Beweglichkeit als Funktion des elektrischen Felds F und der Ladungsträgerdichte n berechnet werden. Die Auswertung ist modellfrei, d.h. ein Modell zum Angleichen der Messdaten ist für die Berechnung von μ(F, n) nicht erforderlich. Die Messung ist außerdem unabhängig von einer möglichen Injektionsbarriere oder einer Potentialstufe an nicht-idealen Kontakten. Die gemessene Funktion μ(F, n) beschreibt die effektive durchschnittliche Beweglichkeit aller freien und in Fallenzuständen gefangenen Ladungsträger. Dieser Zugang beschreibt den Ladungstransport in energetisch ungeordneten Materialien realistisch, wo eine klare Unterscheidung zwischen freien und Fallenzuständen nicht möglich oder willkürlich ist.
Die Messung von IE und EA wird mithilfe temperaturabhängiger Messungen an Solarzellen durchgeführt. In geeigneten Bauteilen mit einem Mischschicht-Heteroübergang (\"bulk heterojunction\" BHJ) ist die Leerlaufspannung Voc im gesamten Messbereich oberhalb 180K eine linear fallende Funktion der Temperatur T. Es kann bestätigt werden, dass die Extrapolation zum Temperaturnullpunkt V0 = Voc(T → 0K) mit der effektiven Energielücke Egeff , d.h. der Differenz zwischen EA des Akzeptor-Materials und IE des Donator-Materials, übereinstimmt. Die systematische schrittweise Variation einzelner Bestandteile der Solarzellen und die Überprüfung des Einflusses auf V0 bestätigen die Beziehung V0 = Egeff. Damit kann die IE oder EA eines Materials bestimmt werden, indem man es in einem BHJ mit einem Material kombiniert, dessen komplementärer Wert bekannt ist. Messungen per Ultraviolett-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (UPS) und inverser Photoelektronenspektroskopie (IPES) werden damit bestätigt, präzisiert und ergänzt.
Die beiden entwickelten Messmethoden werden auf organische Halbleiter aus kleinen Molekülen einschließlich Mischschichten angewandt. In Mischschichten aus Zink-Phthalocyanin (ZnPc) und C60 wird eine Löcherbeweglichkeit gemessen, die sowohl thermisch als auch feld- und ladungsträgerdichteaktiviert ist. Wenn das Mischverhältnis variiert wird, steigt die Löcherbeweglichkeit mit zunehmendem ZnPc-Anteil, während die effektive Energielücke unverändert bleibt. Verschiedene weitere Materialien und Materialmischungen werden hinsichtlich Löcher- und Elektronenbeweglichkeit sowie ihrer Energielücke charakterisiert, einschließlich bisher wenig untersuchter hochverdünnter Donator-Systeme. In allen Materialien wird eine deutliche Feldaktivierung der Beweglichkeit beobachtet. Die Ergebnisse ermöglichen eine verbesserte Beschreibung der detaillierten Funktionsweise organischer Solarzellen und unterstützen die künftige Entwicklung hocheffizienter und optimierter Bauteile.:1. Introduction
2. Organic semiconductors and devices
2.1. Organic semiconductors
2.1.1. Conjugated π system
2.1.2. Small molecules and polymers
2.1.3. Disorder in amorphous materials
2.1.4. Polarons
2.1.5. Polaron hopping
2.1.6. Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi level
2.1.7. Quasi-Fermi levels
2.1.8. Trap states
2.1.9. Doping
2.1.10. Excitons
2.2. Interfaces and blend layers
2.2.1. Interface dipoles
2.2.2. Energy level bending
2.2.3. Injection from metal into semiconductor, and extraction
2.2.4. Excitons at interfaces
2.3. Charge transport and recombination in organic semiconductors
2.3.1. Drift transport
2.3.2. Charge carrier mobility
2.3.3. Thermally activated transport
2.3.4. Diffusion transport
2.3.5. Drift-diffusion transport
2.3.6. Space-charge limited current
2.3.7. Recombination
2.4. Mobility measurement
2.4.1. SCLC and TCLC
2.4.2. Time of flight
2.4.3. Organic field effect transistors
2.4.4. CELIV
2.5. Organic solar cells
2.5.1. Exciton diffusion towards the interface
2.5.2. Dissociation of CT states
2.5.3. CT recombination
2.5.4. Flat and bulk heterojunction
2.5.5. Transport layers
2.5.6. Thin film optics
2.5.7. Current-voltage characteristics and equivalent circuit
2.5.8. Solar cell efficiency
2.5.9. Limits of efficiency
2.5.10. Correct solar cell characterization
2.5.11. The \"O-Factor\"
3. Materials and experimental methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Device fabrication and layout
3.2.1. Layer deposition
3.2.2. Encapsulation
3.2.3. Homogeneity of layer thickness on a wafer
3.2.4. Device layout
3.3. Characterization
3.3.1. Electrical characterization
3.3.2. Sample illumination
3.3.3. Temperature dependent characterization
3.3.4. UPS
4. Simulations
5.1. Design of single carrier devices
5.1.1. General design requirements
5.1.2. Single carrier devices for space-charge limited current
5.1.3. Ohmic regime
5.1.4. Design of injection and extraction layers
5.2. Advanced evaluation of SCLC – potential mapping
5.2.1. Potential mapping by thickness variation
5.2.2. Further evaluation of the transport profile
5.2.3. Injection into and extraction from single carrier devices
5.2.4. Majority carrier approximation
5.3. Proof of principle: POEM on simulated data
5.3.1. Constant mobility
5.3.2. Field dependent mobility
5.3.3. Field and charge density activated mobility
5.3.4. Conclusion
5.4. Application: Transport characterization in organic semiconductors
5.4.1. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.2. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – temperature variation
5.4.3. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – blend ratio variation
5.4.4. Hole transport in ZnPc:C70
5.4.5. Hole transport in neat ZnPc
5.4.6. Hole transport in F4-ZnPc:C60
5.4.7. Hole transport in DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.4.8. Electron transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.9. Electron transport in neat Bis-HFl-NTCDI
5.5. Summary and discussion of the results
5.5.1. Phthalocyanine:C60 blends
5.5.2. DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.5.3. Conclusion
6. Organic solar cell characteristics: the influence of temperature
6.1. ZnPc:C60 solar cells
6.1.1. Temperature variation
6.1.2. Illumination intensity variation
6.2. Voc in flat and bulk heterojunction organic solar cells
6.2.1. Qualitative difference in Voc(I, T)
6.2.2. Interpretation of Voc(I, T)
6.3. BHJ stoichiometry variation
6.3.1. Voc upon variation of stoichiometry and contact layer
6.3.2. V0 upon stoichiometry variation
6.3.3. Low donor content stoichiometry
6.3.4. Conclusion from stoichiometry variation
6.4. Transport material variation
6.4.1. HTM variation
6.4.2. ETM variation
6.5. Donor:acceptor material variation
6.5.1. Donor variation
6.5.2. Acceptor variation
6.6. Conclusion
7. Summary and outlook
7.1. Summary
7.2. Outlook
A. Appendix
A.1. Energy pay-back of this thesis
A.2. Tables and registers
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