Despite the adoption of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health in 2001, which unequivocally affirmed WTO members’ rights to use compulsory licences and other TRIPS flexibilities to access medicines, thirteen years on, developing countries and least developed countries are still grappling with access to medicines issues and a high disease burden. Despite some well researched and eloquent arguments to the contrary, it is a trite fact that patents remain an impediment to access to medicines by encouraging monopoly prices. The WTO TRIPS Agreement gives members room to legislate in a manner that is sympathetic to access to affordable medicines by providing for exceptions to patentability and the use of patents without the authorisation of the patent holder (TRIPS flexibilities). This study focuses on access to medicines under the TRIPS Agreement from a SADC comparative perspective by interrogating the extent of the domestication of TRIPS provisions promoting access to medicines in the SADC region with specific reference to Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe. After establishing that all SADC members, including Seychelles which is yet to be a WTO member have intellectual property (IP) laws in their statute books, this study confirms that while most of the IP provisions may be used to override patents, they are currently not being used by SADC members due to non-IP reasons such as lack of knowledge and political will. The study also engages in comparative discussions of topical occurrences in the context of access to medicines litigation in India, Thailand and Kenya and extracts useful thematic lessons for the SADC region. The study’s overall approach is to extract useful lessons for regional access to medicines from the good experiences of SADC members and other developing country jurisdictions in the context of a south-south bias. The study draws conclusions and recommendations which if implemented will in all likelihood lead to improved access to medicines for SADC citizens, while at the same time respecting the sanctity of patent rights. The study recommends the adoption of a rights-based approach, which will ultimately elevate patient rights over patent rights and urges the region to consider using its LDCs status to issue compulsory licences in the context of TRIPS Article 31 bis while exploring the possibility of local pharmaceutical manufacturing to produce generics, inspired by the experiences of Zimbabwe and current goings on in Mozambique and the use of pooled procurement for the region. The study embraces the rewards theory of patents which should be used to spur innovation and research into diseases of the poor in the SADC region. Civil society activity in the region is also identified as a potential vehicle to drive the move towards access to affordable medicines for all in the SADC region. / Mercantile Law / LL.D.

This study analyses the impact of land registration and certification scheme on sustainable use of farmlands in Debre Mawi and Densa Bahta rural kebeles of Amhara region in northwestern Ethiopia, with a view to contributing to the theoretical debate on tenure security and more realistic policy advocacy on the sustainable use of farmlands. Within the framework of qualitative research methodology, the case study approach helps to observe and understand the relationship between land titling and sustainable use of farmlands in Densa Bahta and Debre Mawi kebeles of the Amhara region in Ethiopia. Specific methods employed were focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and observation, complemented by context analyses of relevant documents. It was found that land titling has contributed to a high perception of security of land tenure among study respondents. However, results show that land titling has both positive and negative impacts on sustainable use of farmlands. The positive impact of land titling is ascribed to its assurance effect and legal obligation imposed on farmers to adopt proper land management practices. The negative impact of land titling arises from its failure to address the existing inequality in possession of farmlands among the village communities. Failure of farmers’ high perceptions of their security of land tenure to translate into sustainable land use practices has implications for the relative importance of productive asset endowments, self-efficacy and risk perception on the sustainable use of farmlands in the Amhara region. Interviewees that follow unsustainable farming practices were endowed with relatively lower pieces of farmland and disadvantaged in possession of other productive assets. They also demonstrated a low level of self-efficacy and a risk-averse attitude to adopting conservation technologies, as they possessed smaller sizes of farmland compared with the village and regional average. The study urges a holistic approach and comprehensive analytical framework to understand the synergy of several factors that affect the sustainable use of farmlands. / Environmental Sciences / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

Thesis (LLM)--University of Stellenbosch, 1999. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis deals with the Trade, Development and Cooperation Agreement (TDCA) between the European Union and the Republic of South Africa, which was concluded in October 1999. In particular, the agreement is analysed in the light of the negotiating process between the parties, the contents of the agreement, the applicability of WTO law and the compatibility of the agreement with it and the Port and Sherry Agreement. Since the EU emphasised its aim to commence economic and development cooperation with other African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries on a reciprocal basis during the negotiations for a successor of the Lomé Convention, the TDCA between the EU and South Africa had to be seen as a "pilot project" for future cooperation agreements between countries at different levels of development. The TDCA between the EU and South Africa is therefore not only very important for the two concerned parties, but could serve as an example for further negotiations between the EU and other ACP countries. Thus the purpose of this thesis is to examine the TDCA between the EU and South Africa from a wider global perspective. The thesis is divided into six Chapters: The first Chapter provides an introduction to the circumstances under which the negotiations between the EU and South Africa commenced. It deals briefly with the economic situation in South Africa during the apartheid era and presents reasons why the parties wanted to enter into bilateral negotiations. The introductory part furthermore presents an overview of the contents of the thesis. The second chapter contains a detailed description of the negotiating process that took place between the parties and shows why it took 43 months and 21 rounds of negotiations to reach a deal. South Africa's partial accession to the Lomé Convention and the conclusion of separate agreements such as the Wine and Spirits Agreement, are also analysed. Chapter three presents the various components of the TOCA and illustrates what the negotiators achieved. This chapter on the TOCA concludes with an evaluation of the Agreement and shows the potential benefits to South Africa and the EU. Since the Agreement had to satisfy international rules, the provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and TradelWorld Trade Organisation (GATTIWTO) were of major importance. The EC Treaty, however, does not contain any provision that indicates whether, or how, an international agreement like the GATTIWTO penetrates the Community legal order. In Chapter four, accordingly, questions are raised regarding the extent to which the bilateral agreement between South Africa and the EU was influenced by the GATTIWTO provisions and how these rules were incorporated into the agreement. Furthermore, since the parties agreed on the establishment of a free trade area, this chapter deals with the question of in how far the TOCA is in line with Article XXIV GATT. In addition to the GATT provisions, the TOCA is also affected by the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs). Therefore Chapter five deals with TRIPs in connection with the TOCA. The use of the terms "Port" and "Sherry" as the major stumbling block to the conclusion of the TOCA is analysed more closely. The final part, namely Chapter six, provides a summary of the results of the investigation. Furthermore, a conclusion is provided with regard to the question of whether the TOeA can be seen as an example for further trade relations between the EU and other ACP countries. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis is gerig op die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms (TDGA) tussen die Europese Unie (EU) en die Republiek van Suid Afrika wat in Oktober 1999 gesluit is. Die ooreenkoms word veral in die lig van die onderhandelingsproses tussen die partye, die inhoud van die ooreenkoms, die toepaslikheid van Wêreldhandelsorganisasiereg en die versoenbaarheid daarvan met die ooreenkoms en die Port en Sjerrie-ooreenkoms ontleed. Aangesien die EU sy oogmerk van wederkerige ekonomiese en ontwikkelings-gerigte samewerking met ander lande in Afrika en die Karibiese en Stille Oseaan-Eilande gedurende die onderhandelings vir 'n opvolger van die Lomé Konvensie beklemtoon het, moes die ooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika as 'n "loodsprojek" vir toekomstige samewerkingsooreenkomste tussen lande wat op verskillende vlakke van onwikkeling is, gesien word. Die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika is dus nie net baie belangrik vir die betrokke partye nie, maar dit kan ook as 'n voorbeeld vir verdere onderhandelings tussen die EU en lande van Afrika en die Karibiese- en Stille Oseaan-Eilande dien. Die doel van dié tesis is om die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewekingsooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika vanuit 'n meer globale perspektief te beskou. Die tesis is in ses Hoofstukke ingedeel: Die eerste hoofstuk bied 'n inleiding tot die omstandighede waaronder die onderhandelings tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika begin het. Dit behandel die Suid- Afrikaanse ekonomiese situasie onder apartheid kortliks en toon hoekom die partye tweesydige onderhandelings wou aanknoop. Verder bied die inleidende deel 'n oorsig oor die inhoud van die tesis. Die tweede hoofstuk bevat 'n gedetailleerde beskrywing van die onderhandelingsproses wat tussen die partye plaasgevind het en toon aan waarom dit drie-en-veertig maande geduur het en een-en-twintig onderhandelingsrondtes gekos het om die saak te beklink. Suid-Afrika se gedeeltelike toetrede tot die Lomé Konvensie en die sluit van aparte ooreenkomste soos die Port- en Sjerrieooreenkoms word ook ontleed. Die daaropvolgende hoofstuk bespreek die verskillende komponente van die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms en toon wat die onderhandelaars bereik het. Hierdie hoofstuk oor die Ooreenkoms sluit af met 'n evaluering daarvan en dui die potensiële voordele van die Ooreenkoms vir Suid- Afrika en die EU aan. Aangesien die Ooreenkoms internasionale reëls moes tevrede stel, was die voorskrifte van die Algemene Ooreenkoms oor Tariewe en Handel (GATT) van uiterste belang. Die EG-verdrag bevat egter geen voorskrif wat aandui óf, of hoé, 'n internasionale ooreenkoms soos GATTNVTO die regsorde van die Europese Gemeenskap binnedring nie. Die vraag oor in hoeverre die tweesydige ooreenkoms tussen Suid-Afrika en die EU deur die GATTIWTO voorskrifte beïnvloed is, en oor hoe hierdie reëls in die ooreenkoms opgeneem is, word dus in Hoofstuk vier aangeraak. Aangesien die partye ooreengekom het om 'n vrye handeisarea tot stand te bring, behandel hierdie hoofstuk ook die vraag oor in hoeverre die TOGA met Artikel XXIV GATT strook. Tesame met die GATT-voorskrifte word die TOGA ook deur die Ooreenkoms ten opsigte van Handelsverwante Aspekte van Intellektuele Eiendomsreg (TRIPs) geraak. Hoofstuk vyf behandel daarom hierdie aspek ten opsigte van die TOGA. Die gebruik van die terme "Port" en "Sjerrie" as die vernaamste struikelblok tot die sluiting van die TOG-ooreenkoms word ook deegliker ontleed. Die laaste gedeelte, naamlik Hoofstuk ses, bied 'n opsomming van die resultate van die ondersoek. Verder word 'n gevolgtrekking voorsien ten opsigte van vraag of die TOGA as 'n voorbeeld vir verdere handelsverwantskappe tussen die EU en ander lande in Afrika en die Karibiese en Stille Oseaan-eilande beskou kan word.

「智慧財產權」係指人類精神活動之成果而產生財產上之價值者，由法律所創設之一種權利。然而著作權是智慧財產權之一種，著作權法是為了保障著作人應有之權利而制定之法律，但並非所有著作均受到著作權法的保護，立法者於制定著作權法時，考量重點有三：著作人之權益、社會公共利益與國家社會發展三方面，然而著作人在創作時，往往會涉及先人文化之遺產，所以立法時仍顧及公共利益予以限制，再者著作權制度終極目標乃是促進國家文化發展，當面臨公共利益與著作權人權益保護衝突時，應特別注意兩者之平衡，考量使社會大眾能在合理程度範圍內，自由利用著作權人之文化創作，以促進國家社會發展。 隨著科技時代的來臨，過去人類所創造的文化資產與各類的知識，可以藉由科技來加以保存、整理、傳播及利用，一方面使得知識能永久保存下來，一方面使得知識與文化資源得以共享，繼而加速文明的進步。有鑑於此，各國也紛紛著手進行數位典藏計劃，我國擁有悠久的歷史背景、累積豐富的文化資產以及珍貴的文獻與歷史文物，現也正積極進行相關的數位典藏計劃，而圖書館的典藏受到資訊科技的影響，逐漸開始著手進行自動化的工作，並引進許多電子資源，這些資源建立了數位館藏，內容包含電子書、電子期刊、電子資料庫，也進一步參與了許多數位典藏計劃，但數位資源與數位典藏當中仍然有許多著作權相關的問題瀰漫著，而資源建立進而引發著作權的問題。 美國著作權法是全世界發展最為完善的國家之一，其使用各種方式來協助一些侵權問題嚴重的國家，而我國對於著作權法的修訂，與美國方面的淵源頗深，並由圖書館數位典藏管理的角度來進行分析，針對中美兩國圖書館數位典藏管理與著作權法之關係，擬就研究問題逐一進行分析與探討之。在兩國數位典藏管理與著作權法的議題之中，時常有相關性的議題產生，進而牽動整體修法的方向，需要相互比對。本研究藉由比較研究法的方式，瞭解兩國之間的差異性，並且透過描述、解釋、併排、比較的過程，最後進行分析之，將比較之結果做一結論，以驗證研究假設，得出具體性的建議。 / Intellectual property right is a priority protection based upon a compromise as an aspect of human spirit activities achievement. With respect of it creates a statutory and potential property right for writers of which does not cover for all of writings, the cardinal principle of establishing copying is writer’s rights and interests, public interest, and society development three factors. In respect of the writer as in creating to which may involved with culture inheritance affiliated rights that need to take both of upon factors into account on copyright system establishment. Particularly, how to negotiate the conflict rights to make balance for the public interest and writer’s copyright protection in terms of promoting society development by adopting the creations of writers’ copyright freely which under a legitimate range. Benefited from the help of high technique of science adoption for those cultural properties and correlative knowledge preservation, organization, broadcasting, and utilization of which make a possibility of sharing cultural resources by each other and to keep progressing for human culture constantly. Consequently, adopt a digital collection plan for national heritage become a current for the global nations. In concern of the long-standing historical background of Republic of China, have an abundant cultural heritage and plentiful valuable document and historical relics that engaged in a necessary planning project for processing correlative digital collection recently. However, a solemn concern emerged by the subject of copyrights as integrating the electronic book, electronic periodical, and electronic information bank into the respective sub-subject planning. United States as the world top faultless copyright law featured country, which providing assistance to help those countries that seriously infringed by copyright tort and implementing different methods to improve copyright revision. Especially, according to the reality of Republic of China has a long good relationship with United States that is necessary to make a comparison study for respective library digital collection management and copyright between two countries. Regarding the two study subjects of which interact debate revelation frequently that is necessary to make a comparative analysis and probe into the core of two correlative digital collection managements on the direction of integral law revision. In this study, implement comparative analysis to understand the differences between two countries and through the process of description, interpretation, juxtaposition, and comparison to analyze the comparison result. At last, a specific proposal provided by the analysis conclusion and testify assumes in this paper.

Cette thèse s'articule autour de trois essais portant sur des questions internationales en économie des ressources naturelles. Le premier essai examine la production et l'échange des ressources non-renouvelables dans un modèle spatial et souligne le rôle de la superficie des pays et du coût des transports dans la détermination du sens de l'échange. Le deuxième essai considère le tarif d'extraction de la rente de rareté liée aux ressources naturelles non-renouvelables avec le modèle spatial développé dans premier essai. Le cadre spatial (plus général) permet de représenter des pays qui sont à la fois importateurs et producteurs de la ressource, ce qui n'est pas possible dans les modèles traditionnels de commerce international où les pays sont traités comme des points (sans dimension). Le troisième essai aborde la question des droits de propriétés sur les zones maritimes et examine l'allocation d'une population de pêcheurs entre les activités productives et non-productives dans une communauté côtière. Le premier chapitre propose un modèle spatial de commerce international des ressources non-renouvelables. Le cadre spatial considère explicitement la différence de taille géographique (superficie) entre les pays et permet ainsi de tenir compte du fait que les gisements naturels et leurs utilisateurs soient dispersés dans l'espace, même à l'intérieur d'un pays. En utilisant un modèle spatial à la Hotelling, nous examinons l'évolution dans le temps du sens de l'échange entre deux pays (ou régions) qui diffèrent du point de vue de leur technologie de production, de leur superficie et de leur dotation en gisement d'une ressource naturelle non-renouvelable. Le chapitre met en évidence le rôle de la taille géographique dans la détermination du sens de l'échange, à côté des explications traditionnelles que sont l'avantage comparatif et les dotations des facteurs. Notre analyse est fondamentalement différente des autres contributions dans la littérature sur le commerce international des ressources naturelles parce qu'elle souligne l'importance de la taille géographique et du coût de transport par rapport à d'autres facteurs dans la détermination des flux de ressource à l'équilibre. Le coût unitaire de transport joue un rôle capital pour déterminer si la différence de superficie entre les pays influence le sens de l'échange à l'équilibre plus que les autres facteurs. Le chapitre discute aussi du caractère régional des échanges qui a été observé pour certaines ressources telles que le minerai de fer et la bauxite. Le chapitre deux aborde la question de la répartition de la rente de rareté liée aux ressources naturelles non-renouvelables entre les pays producteurs et les pays consommateurs. Cette question a été abordée dans la littérature sous une hypothèse quelque peu restrictive. En effet, dans la plupart des travaux portant sur ce sujet le pays importateur est automatiquement considéré comme dépourvu de gisement et donc non producteur de la ressource. Pourtant la réalité est qu'il existe des ressources pour lesquelles un pays est à la fois producteur et importateur. Le cadre d'analyse de ce second essai est le modèle spatial développé dans le premier essai, qui permet justement qu'un pays puisse être à la fois importateur et producteur de la ressource. Le pays importateur détermine alors simultanément le tarif optimal et le taux d'extraction de son propre stock. Nous montrons que le tarif optimal croît au taux d'intérêt et de ce fait, ne crée aucune distorsion sur le sentier d'extraction de la ressource. Le tarif optimal permet de récupérer toute la rente lorsque le pays exportateur ne consomme pas la ressource. Néanmoins, la possibilité pour le pays exportateur de consommer une partie de son stock limite la capacité du pays importateur à récupérer la rente chez le pays exportateur. La présence de gisements de la ressource dans le pays importateur réduit la rente du pays exportateur et de ce fait renforce la capacité du pays importateur à récupérer la rente chez le pays exportateur. Le tarif initial est une fonction décroissante du stock de ressource dans le pays importateur. Cet essai aborde également la question de la cohérence dynamique du tarif obtenu avec la stratégie en boucle ouverte. Le troisième chapitre examine un problème d'allocation de l'effort entre les activités productives (par exemple la pêche) et les activités non productives (par exemple la piraterie maritime) dans une population de pêcheurs. La répartition de la population entre les activités de pêche et la piraterie est déterminée de façon endogène comme une conséquence du choix d'occupation. Nous établissons l'existence d'une multiplicité d'équilibres et mettons en évidence la possibilité d'une trappe de piraterie, c'est-à-dire un équilibre stable où une partie de la population est engagée dans les actes de piraterie. Le modèle permet d'expliquer l'augmentation significative des attaques de piraterie dans le Golfe d'Aden au cours des dernières années. Le chapitre discute aussi des différents mécanismes pour combattre la piraterie et souligne le rôle crucial des droits de propriété. / This thesis consists of three essays on international issues in natural resource economics. The first essay proposes a spatial model of trade in exhaustible resources and emphasizes the role of geographical size and transport costs in the determination of trade patterns. The second essay considers the rent-extracting tariff in a spatial (more general) framework in which the importing country can be simultaneously a producer and an importer of the resource, a feature which is not possible in the traditional trade model, where countries are assumed dimensionless. The third essay tackles the issue of property rights in maritime zones and examines the allocation of a population of fishermen between productive and unproductive activities in a coastal community. The first chapter proposes a model of trade in exhaustible resources that explicitly accounts for the fact that countries have different geographical sizes while resource sites and their users are spatially distributed, even within a country. Using a spatial model à la Hotelling, we examine the evolution over time of the pattern of trade between two countries (or regions) which differ in terms of their technology, their geographical size, and their endowment of some nonrenewable natural resource. The model emphasizes the importance of geographical size in determining trade patterns besides the traditional explanations of comparative advantage and factor endowments. Indeed, three forces influence the direction of international trade in the presence of transport costs. The analysis fundamentally differs from other contributions in the natural resource literature because it emphasizes the importance of geographical size and of transport cost relative to other factors in the determination of the equilibrium resource flows. The unit cost of transport is shown to play a decisive role in determining whether the international asymmetry in terms of geographical sizes of countries has a greater influence than other factors on the equilibrium pattern of trade. The chapter also discusses the regional character of trade which has been observed for some resources such as iron ore and bauxite. Most findings in the literature on tariff and exhaustible resources have been derived under a serious abstraction. Indeed, virtually all contributions on that issue have assumed that no stocks of the resource are available within the importing country's borders and therefore the importing country is not itself a producer. Reality is in fact quite different: there are many instances of countries that are simultaneously importers and producers of a natural resource. The second chapter makes use of the spatial trade model of chapter one to depart from the usual assumption and allow the importing country to have access to a stock of the resource of its own and to determine simultaneously the optimal tariff and the rate of depletion of its own stock. The optimal tariff is shown to increase at the rate of interest and is therefore nondistortionary. Moreover, the optimal tariff captures all the rent if the exporting country gets no utility from consuming the resource. Allowing the exporting country to consume the resource restricts the ability of the importer to capture all of the foreign rent. The presence of resource deposits in the importing country reduces the available rent to foreign producers and, in essence, reinforces the ability of the importer to capture the foreign rent. In effect, the initial tariff is shown to be a decreasing function of the initial resource stock in the importing country. The essay also discusses the time consistency of the open-loop tariff. The third chapter examines how agents in a coastal community allocate effort between productive (fishing) and unproductive (piracy) activities. The allocation of population between fishing activity and piracy attacks is determined endogenously as a consequence of the occupation choice. We prove the existence of multiple equilibria and emphasize the possibility of a piracy trap, that is a steady state equilibrium where part of the population is engaged in piracy acts. The chapter offers an explanation for the significant increase in piracy attacks in the Gulf of Aden in the recent years. The chapter also discusses different schemes in combating piracy and highlights the crucial role of property rights.

<p>Традиционално, државина је посматрана као чињеница (possessio non iuris est, sed facti). Један део правне доктрине сматра да је државина право. Мада има одговарајућа правна дејства и ужива правну заштиту, државина није и не може бити право. Веома често се државина и право на државину поклапaју, и правни субјект може имати право на државину (ius possidendi) засновано на неком субјективном праву, али државина може настати не само као вршење правне власти, већ и без ње, па и супротно таквом овлашћењу. Државина може да постоји независно од права на ствар, односно, независно од тога да ли се у конкретном случају правна и фактичка власт на некој ствари подударају или супротстављају.<br />Предмет истраживања и рада на докторској дисертацији &bdquo;Правна дејства државине у савременом праву&ldquo;, представља анализу појма, правне природе, субјеката и објеката државине, врста и квалитета државине, стицања, преноса и престанка државине. Овако детаљно сагледавање института државине доприноси разумевању најзначајних правних дејстава које државина производи.<br />Циљ истраживања представља критичку анализу позитивног права и прилагођавање регулативе изазовима савременог доба.<br />Од врста и квалитета државине зависи која ће правна дејства правни поредак везивати уз одговарајућу државину. Субјективна и објективна својства државине детерминишу њен квалитет. Државина са свим позитивним елементима је квалификована државина. То је државина која је истовремено законита, права и савесна. Правна дејства државине настају онда када је државина стечена и у односу на онога ко ју је стекао.<br />Функције државине које се остварују кроз правна дејства су: функција публицитета, функција континуитета и заштитна функција.<br />Правна дејства државине која произлазе из публицитетне функције су: државина је начин стицања стварних права на покретним стварима, државина ствара претпоставку о постојању права својине на ствари, државина ствара могућност стицања својине од невласника, држалац је одговоран за штету која потиче од ствари која се налази у његовој државини.<br />Правна дејства државине која произлазе из континуитетне функције су: заштита државине од одузимања или сметања, повољнији положај држаоца код кога се ствар налази у поступку по публицијанској тужби, положај држаоца приликом враћања ствари у петиторном спору за предају ствари, могућност да државина која је имала одређене квалитете и трајала законом одређено време, путем одржаја, прерасте у право својине.<br />У закључним разматрањима докторске дисертације сублимирају се резултати истраживања, недостаци позитивноправних решења и дају предлози de lege ferenda.</p> / <p>Tradicionalno, državina je posmatrana kao činjenica (possessio non iuris est, sed facti). Jedan deo pravne doktrine smatra da je državina pravo. Mada ima odgovarajuća pravna dejstva i uživa pravnu zaštitu, državina nije i ne može biti pravo. Veoma često se državina i pravo na državinu poklapaju, i pravni subjekt može imati pravo na državinu (ius possidendi) zasnovano na nekom subjektivnom pravu, ali državina može nastati ne samo kao vršenje pravne vlasti, već i bez nje, pa i suprotno takvom ovlašćenju. Državina može da postoji nezavisno od prava na stvar, odnosno, nezavisno od toga da li se u konkretnom slučaju pravna i faktička vlast na nekoj stvari podudaraju ili suprotstavljaju.<br />Predmet istraživanja i rada na doktorskoj disertaciji &bdquo;Pravna dejstva državine u savremenom pravu&ldquo;, predstavlja analizu pojma, pravne prirode, subjekata i objekata državine, vrsta i kvaliteta državine, sticanja, prenosa i prestanka državine. Ovako detaljno sagledavanje instituta državine doprinosi razumevanju najznačajnih pravnih dejstava koje državina proizvodi.<br />Cilj istraživanja predstavlja kritičku analizu pozitivnog prava i prilagođavanje regulative izazovima savremenog doba.<br />Od vrsta i kvaliteta državine zavisi koja će pravna dejstva pravni poredak vezivati uz odgovarajuću državinu. Subjektivna i objektivna svojstva državine determinišu njen kvalitet. Državina sa svim pozitivnim elementima je kvalifikovana državina. To je državina koja je istovremeno zakonita, prava i savesna. Pravna dejstva državine nastaju onda kada je državina stečena i u odnosu na onoga ko ju je stekao.<br />Funkcije državine koje se ostvaruju kroz pravna dejstva su: funkcija publiciteta, funkcija kontinuiteta i zaštitna funkcija.<br />Pravna dejstva državine koja proizlaze iz publicitetne funkcije su: državina je način sticanja stvarnih prava na pokretnim stvarima, državina stvara pretpostavku o postojanju prava svojine na stvari, državina stvara mogućnost sticanja svojine od nevlasnika, držalac je odgovoran za štetu koja potiče od stvari koja se nalazi u njegovoj državini.<br />Pravna dejstva državine koja proizlaze iz kontinuitetne funkcije su: zaštita državine od oduzimanja ili smetanja, povoljniji položaj držaoca kod koga se stvar nalazi u postupku po publicijanskoj tužbi, položaj držaoca prilikom vraćanja stvari u petitornom sporu za predaju stvari, mogućnost da državina koja je imala određene kvalitete i trajala zakonom određeno vreme, putem održaja, preraste u pravo svojine.<br />U zaključnim razmatranjima doktorske disertacije sublimiraju se rezultati istraživanja, nedostaci pozitivnopravnih rešenja i daju predlozi de lege ferenda.</p> / <p>Traditionally, possession has been viewed as a matter of facts (possession not iuris est, sed facti). A part of legal doctrine regards possession as a right. Although possession causes certain legal effects and enjoys protection of the law, possession is not and may not be regarded as a right. Very often factual possession and right to possession overlap and a person may hold a right to possession (ius possidendi) based on some personal right, however possession may be created not only as a result of lawful exercise of one&rsquo;s rights, but also without, or contrary to, exercise of such rights. Possession may exist independently of property rights, that is, regardless of whether legal and factual control over a thing overlap or are at odds.<br />The subject of this research and work on doctoral thesis titled &ldquo;The Legal Effects of Possession in Contemporary Law&rdquo; is analysis of the meaning and legal nature of possession; persons holding possession and things that may be subject to possession; types and varieties of possession; acquiring, transfer, and loss of possession. Such detailed overview of possession contributes to better understanding of the most significant legal effects caused by possession over a thing.<br />The aim of the research is to provide a critical analysis of the law and to examine how the regulations have been modified to meet the challenges of modern time.<br />Depending on the type and form of possession, the legal framework provides for different legal effects to possession over a thing. Personal and objective features determine the quality of possession. Possession, with all the positive elements, constitutes qualified possession. The qualified possession is a possession that is legal and lawful. Legal effects of possession are created at the moment the possession is acquired and they are created towards a person that acquired it.<br />The following elements of possession are created through its legal effects: element of publicity, element of continuity, and protective element.<br />Legal effects of possession associated with the element of publicity are the following: possession is a modus of acquiring property rights over movable objects; possession creates presumption about an existence of property rights over a thing; possession creates possibility of acquiring property rights from a person that does not hold any property rights to a thing; person having corporal possession over a thing is liable for damages arising out of the thing that he holds in his possession.<br />Legal effects of possession associated with the element of continuity are the following: protection of possession from dispossession or infringement of possession; more favorable possession of the holder of a thing in proceedings initiated by Publiciana in rem action; position of the holder at the time of recovery of the thing in proceedings for actions initiated for recovery of possession; it is possible for possession that had certain qualities and that lasted for a period of time set by the law, through adverse possession, to transfigure into a property right.<br />The results, shortcomings of the legislative framework and suggestions de lege ferenda, are summarized in the conclusion of the doctoral thesis.</p>

The justification of property ownership based on individual subjective rights is tightly bound to humanist moral perspectives. God is left out as irrelevant to the just grounds of ownership, which is established primarily on the basis of human self-referential, moral capacity. This thesis aims at developing an alternative justification, both for property as an institution and as a private holding, with a view to bringing God back into the centre stage and thereby placing property ownership on the objective concept of right. A tradition hitherto generally left unnoticed, yet uncovered here as the source of inspiration, vests the whole project with a moral-teleological tone. The tradition, enunciated by St. Augustine and developed by St. Bonaventure and John Wyclif, invites us to see property from the perspective of a moral end: it ought to be used for the love of God and neighbours, and as such it can be owned only by the just. In spite of important insights into the moral nature of property, the Augustinian thesis not only fails to spell out what ‘use for love’ means but also suffers from elitism. Nor does it offer an adequate justification of private property. Such weaknesses call for revision. When we reinterpret the Augustinian thesis through the concept of the divine imperative of service coupled with a proper understanding of human work, property acquires a distinctive justification. Property, as an institution, is justified as a requisite for carrying out God’s redemptive work towards the world. From this general justification ensues the particular justification. We hold property as specifically ‘mine,’ since each person’s ordained mission to participate in God’s work requires a uniquely personal material means, although the recognition and fulfilment of individual mission still demands communal efforts. The duty to carry out the God-commanded mission at first allows us to possess private property only in a non-proprietorial and non-exclusive manner. Yet in the prevailing condition of economic scarcity and human greed, civil jurisdiction must provide a structure of rights to enforce property institution. As God’s invitation for the transformation of the world is a universal command, everybody should have a minimum of property, and yet in differentiation of the scope and kinds commensurate with the particularities of individual mission.

Dans le cadre de la Western Climate Iniative, le Québec a déployé en 2012, un système de plafonnement et d’échange de droits d’émission de gaz à effet de serre (SPEDE). Il s’agit de l’un des premiers régimes de ce type en Amérique du Nord et celui-ci pourrait à terme, constituer l'un des maillons d’un marché commun du carbone à l’échelle du continent. Toutefois, le SPEDE appartient à une catégorie d’instruments économiques de protection de l’environnement encore peu connue des juristes. Il s’inscrit en effet dans la régulation économique de l’environnement et repose sur des notions tirées de la théorie économique, dont la rareté, la propriété et le marché. La thèse s’insère donc dans le dialogue entre juristes et économistes autour de la conception et de la mise en œuvre de ce type d’instrument. Afin d’explorer son architecture et de révéler les enjeux juridiques qui le traversent, nous avons eu recours à la méthode de l’analyse économique du droit. Celle-ci permet notamment de montrer les dynamiques d'incitation et d’efficacité qui sont à l'œuvre dans les règles qui encadrent le SPEDE. Elle permet également à donner un aperçu du rôle décisif joué par la formulation des règles de droit dans l’opérationnalisation des hypothèses économiques sous-jacentes à cette catégorie d’instrument. L’exploration est menée par l’entremise d’une modélisation progressive de l’échange de droits d’émission qui prend en compte les coûts de transaction. Le modèle proposé dans la thèse met ainsi en lumière, de manière générale, les points de friction qui sont susceptibles de survenir aux différentes étapes de l'échange de droits d'émission et qui peuvent faire obstacle à son efficacité économique. L’application du modèle aux règles du SPEDE a permis de contribuer à l’avancement des connaissances en donnant aux juristes un outil permettant de donner une cohérence et une intelligibilité à l’analyse des règles de l’échange. Elle a ainsi fourni une nomenclature des règles encadrant l’échange de droits d’émission. Cette nomenclature fait ressortir les stratégies de diversification de l’échange, d’institutionnalisation de ses modalités ainsi que les enjeux de la surveillance des marchés, dont celui des instruments dérivés adossés aux droits d’émission, dans un contexte de fragmentation des autorités de tutelle. / As part of the launch of the Western Climate Initiative, the province of Québec has implemented on January 1st, 2012, one of the first carbon emissions trading system in North America (CETS). Such a system could in time become part of the emerging regulated market for carbon on the continent. However, it belongs to a category of economic instruments still timidly explored in legal literature. The CETS forms part of the economic regulation of the environment and is based on concepts drawn from the economic theory such as scarcity, property and the market. The thesis aims at contributing to the dialogue between jurists and economists around the design and implementation of this type of instrument. In order to explore its architecture and uncover the legal issues at play, we applied the teachings of law and economics in order to reveal the underlying dynamics of incitation and efficiency built in the CETS regulations and highlight the pivotal role played by the formulation of legal rules in their operationalization. The exploration is conducted through a progressive modelling of the exchange of emission rights, which takes into account transaction costs. The resulting model brings to light friction points that are likely to occur at different stages of the exchange of emission rights and might negatively impact its economic efficiency. The thesis contributes to the advancement of knowledge by offering jurists a coherent and intelligible legal analysis of the rules governing the exchange of emission rights in the CETS. Thus, it provides a systematic arrangement of these rules structured around the diversification strategies of the exchange and the institutionalization of its terms. It also raises market surveillance issues, particularly of the carbon derivatives market, in a context of fragmentation of market authorities.

The thesis is focused on a specific area of intellectual property field, namely the system of protection of Intellectual property whose current form has been shaped by the international organizations, especially by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). There has therefore been allocated extra space in the thesis to make the reader familiar with these respective organizations, especially with their organizational structure, decision-making procedures and activities. Important part of the thesis is analysis of current relations between WIPO and WTO, including its negative aspects. The thesis also contains section devoted to possible future development of the relations between WIPO and WTO.

This doctoral thesis presents the basic and the main developments of the theories of the firm rooted in Transaction Cost Theory (TCT). Since the article of Coase on the nature of the firm, this question has been elaborated by number of economists. In my point of view, I would like to introduce the last theory developed by the representative of the school called New Institutional Economics. The theory concentrates on the role of institutions. We distinguish institutions formal and informal. The formal are laws, constitution, regulations, contracts and other written rules. The informal don't require a written form and they represent informal restrictions such as rules of behaviour, conventions, traditions and habits. The main purpose of the institutions in their various forms is mainly to protect property rights, enforce voluntary contracts and establish the physical and regulatory infrastructure to facilitate economic activity. Generally, we can call them the rules of the game. They inform us about possible economic behaviour and give us basic restrictions in this sense. First -- the theoretical part of this thesis, we can find a simple model with human asset specificity based on TCT. The main proposition is that transactions with a high level of asset specificity are more probably internalised because the firm handles better such transactions compared to the market, even if asset specificity increases the cost of coordination in the firm. If the hierarchy, for example through the formation of routines, may enhance the efficiency compared to the market, we can modify the previous model. The model developed according to a Knowledge-based view assumes that asset specificity reduces transaction costs inside the firm and increases transaction costs on the market. In the conclusion of the theoretical part is discussed the reply on first formulate hypothesis if the TCT is still compatible with a newer Capability and Knowledge based view. In my opinion based on the presented arguments and views, both theories are compatible, they can answer more questions and explain more issues. The last step links the aforementioned theories into one Theory of firm boundaries. In the practical part of the thesis, I bring basic arguments about the institutional framework quality in the Czech Republic. These arguments rely on the latest studies of the international institutions such The Transparency International, The Heritage Foundation, The Kurtzman Group and mainly The World Bank. Studies reveal certain weak arrangements concerning for example the number of procedures when starting a business, complicated construction permits, rigidity of working hours, time-consuming and administrative demanding tax system, duration of judicial process which results in ineffective contract enforcement and mainly poor protection of property rights. Taking these disclosures into account we have to say that emergent transaction costs are enormous. These transaction costs influence negatively the competitiveness of the firms and the whole Czech economy. Therefore a negative response to the second hypothesis relating to the quality of the institutional framework in the Czech Republic.