This thesis discusses early modern European perceptions of body and soul in association with the increasing stringency of civilized behaviour and state formation in an effort to provide motivation for the increased severity of the witch hunts of that time. Both secondary and primary sources have been used, in particular the contemporary demonologies by such authors as Bodin, and Kramer and Sprenger. The thesis is divided into five chapters, including an Introduction and Conclusion. The body of the thesis focuses on religious, scientific, and secular beliefs (Ch. 2), appearance and characteristics of witches (Ch. 3), and the activities and behaviours/actions of witches, (Ch. 4). This study concentrates on the similarities found across Europe, and, as the majority of witches persecuted were female, my thesis emphasizes women as victims of the witch hunts.

The intention of this thesis is to try to uncover the meaning of the sin offering once again. To get to this new point of view, it uses synchronic methods and thorough analysis of defined texts of Leviticus (from the first, the fourth and the sixth chapter) and it even uses analysis of single words in a wider context. First it is concerned about getting deeply into the understanding of what sin is, then that the sacrificial animal probably becomes the sin and the sin is killed. Also there is a priest, who makes rites with the blood and the fat. It is likely that both of these rites have very deep sense. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

La conception nietzschéenne du corps s’oppose à la conception mécaniste qui domine la science de son temps : le corps n’est pas composé d’atomes en mouvement ; il forme une hiérarchie de volontés de puissances. En même temps, le corps constitue mon moi véritable : l’existence d’un principe intellectuel extérieur au corps est une illusion. Dans la mesure où l’essence du corps est l’essence même du monde, c’est-à-dire la volonté de puissance, et que le corps constitue également le lieu de mon expérience la plus intime, il est l’authentique fil conducteur de la connaissance. Pourtant, le corps ne se révèle pas à lui-même immédiatement : en tant que volonté de puissance, il interprète, c’est-à-dire transforme et falsifie ; et une telle transformation s’opère également au sein de la conscience intime. Aussi, le corps, fil conducteur de la connaissance, est également principe d’erreur. La connaissance, qui n’est pas possible en dehors du corps, ne saurait donc pourtant être gagnée que contre le corps, c’est-à-dire au terme d’un effort ascétique. / Nietzsche’s comprehension of the body is opposed to the mechanistic conception which dominates the science of his time: the body is not composed of atoms in motion; it forms a hierarchy of wills to power. At the same time, the body is my authentic self: the existence of an intellectual principle outside the body is an illusion. Insofar as the essence of the body is the essence of the world, that is to say, the will to power, and the body also is the place of my most intimate experience, it forms the true way to knowledge. However, the body does not reveal itself to itself immediately: As will to power, he interprets, that is to say, transforms and falsifies; and such a transformation also takes place in the inner consciousness. Therefore, the body, only way to knowledge, is also principle of error. Knowledge, which is not possible outside the body, can though be won only against the body, that is to say, as result of an ascetic effort

Il s'agit dans cette thèse d'explorer la question du dualisme substantiel et sa relation avec l'union chez Descartes en choisissant comme angle d'attaque le rapport entre imagination et idée. Si, comme l'ont soutenu de nombreux commentateurs, l'imagination a été écartée par Descartes dès 1630 et surtout à partir de 1637 parce qu'il lui importait de démontrer la distinction réelle de l'âme et du corps et de fonder cette démonstration sur l'existence de Dieu, alors la théorie des idées qu'il développe dans ce contexte, devrait être déterminée indépendamment de la notion d'imagination. Nous montrons que les notions d'imagination et d'image servent à constituer sa théorie des idées, ce qui indique que cette faculté occupe toujours pour lui une place importante dans sa théorie de la connaissance et qu'elle n'est en aucun cas exclue de sa métaphysique. Comment concilier cette position épistémologique avec la thèse de la distinction réelle? Nous avons reconsidéré le statut ontologique de l'imagination, conçue comme un mode de la substance pensante mais exclue de l'essence de celle-ci. Cette distinction modale est cruciale pour ne pas interpréter la distinction réelle esprit/corps comme un dualisme dur. Car si une propriété est un mode, elle ne peut être exclue de l'essence de la substance dont elle est le mode. Nous concluons que l'imagination est en réalité exclue de l'essence de l'âme purement intellectuelle mais non de l'essence de l'âme humaine et qu'il n'y a de distinction réelle qu'entre l'âme pure et le corps. / This doctoral dissertation concerns the substantial Cartesian dualism and its relation with union in the light of the link between imagination and ideas. If imagination was removed since 1630 and 1637, as a lot of commentators argued, because Descartes wanted to demonstrate the real distinction between body and soul, and found his demonstration on the existence of God, then his theory of ideas should be constituted independently of the notion of imagination. We argue that the notions of imagination and image help to establish this theory: this shows that imagination is still important in Descartes' theory of knowledge and that it is not excluded from his Metaphysics. How to conciliate this epistemological position with real distinction thesis? We reconsidered the ontological status of imagination as a mode of a thinking substance but excluded from the essence of this substance. This modal distinction is crucial in order not to misinterpret the real distinction between soul and body, seen not only as a hard dualism. Yet, if a property is a mode, it cannot be excluded from the essence of the substance of which it is the mode. We conclude that imagination is removed from the essence of a purely intellectual soul but not from human soul and that there is only a real distinction between pure soul and body. Imagination reinforces the intelligibility of dualism since it serves to understand why the real distinction between soul and body is compatible with their substantial union.

This Thesis deals with the philosophy and ethics of St.Thomas Aquinas and of St. Augustine. At first I characterize the time period then I am focusing on each cathegory concerning moral life of human being in the world such as God, soul, will, goodness, evil and happiness as well. My goal is to show the real purpose of human existence and to show how both philosophers understand individual topics, what is the same and different in their opinion.

La thèse se propose d'examiner la notion de « noyau de la personne (Kern der Person) » telle qu'elle se déploie dans la philosophie d'Edith Stein, et qui revient à poser une essence singulière comme fondement ultime de la particularité (Eigenart) propre de chaque être humain. Élucider les fondements et le sens de cette notion originale permet conjointement d'évaluer le lien complexe de l'ancienne élève de Husserl à la phénoménologie. Ainsi la notion de noyau personnel est-elle d'abord envisagée comme catégorie phénoménologique qui questionne l'idéalisme transcendantal husserlien, et légitime un dépassement de la réduction initiale (I). Loin de constituer une rupture avec les œuvres de la première période, l'investigation ontologique du noyau personnel, dans les années trente, peut alors apparaître comme son prolongement, à travers une métaphysique qui se comprend comme « hyperphénoménologie », et permet la confrontation de la catégorie de noyau personnel avec les théories classiques de l'individuation (T. d'Aquin, Duns Scot, etc.) (II). L'ultime investigation du noyau personnel revient enfin chez E. Stein à une philosophie de la mystique, qui autorise à saisir la « nuit obscure » comme une reconfiguration de la réduction husserlienne (III), par quoi le parcours philosophique steinien peut être relu comme une véritable odyssée de la réduction. / The dissertation seeks to examine the concept of « core of the person (Kern der Person) » as it is expounded in the philosophy of Edith Stein, which amounts to setting a singular essence as the ultimate basis of each human being's own particularity (Eigenart). Elucidating the foundation and meaning of this original concept enables us at the same time to evaluate the complex relation of Husserl's former student to phenomenology. Thus the concept of personal core is initially considered as a phenomenological category that puts to the test husserlian transcendental idealism, and legitimates going beyond the initial reduction (I). Consequently, the ontological investigation of the personal core, in the thirties, does not introduce a break with works of the first period but can be considered as their extension through a metaphysics that must be understood as « hyperphenomenology ».This allows for a confrontation of the category of personal core with the classical theories of individuation (Aquinas, Duns Scotus, etc.) (II). Finally, according to E. Stein, the ultimate investigation of the personal core amounts to a philosophy of the mystical, which enables to interpret the « obscure night » as a reconfiguration of husserlian reduction (III). In this sense the steinian philosophical itinerary can actually be understood as an odyssey of the notion of reduction.

Mishkan ha-‘Edut, la Résidence du Témoignage, est le dernier ouvrage important écrit par le kabbaliste castillan R. Moshe de Leon (1240-1305). On peut considérer cet ouvrage comme une œuvre de couronnement et de maturation de la pensée de l’auteur. Connu à travers plusieurs ouvrages écrits en hébreu, R. Moshe de Leon est, d’après les jugements des historiens, l’un des auteurs principaux du prestigieux Sefer ha-Zohar, rédigé en araméen, et que la tradition rabbinique et populaire attribue à R. Shim’one bar Yohaï, rabbin galiléen ayant vécu entre le premier et le deuxième siècle de l’ère chrétienne. Le Mishkan ha-‘Edut traite de plusieurs questions fondamentales : la raison de l’existence du monde et son fondement dans la divinité ; la place de l’homme dans ce monde, la signification théologique profonde et la raison de son parcours terrestre; la nature de la transgression du commandement divin et la possibilité de repentir pour l’homme en tant qu’être psycho-physique doté d’une âme d’origine divine ; l’eschatologie de l’âme : le sort de chacune de ses composantes après la mort, sa purification dans la géhenne et la nature de son séjour dans le jardin de l’Eden. R. Moshe de Leon reprend, de manière plus structurée, plusieurs sujets abordés dans ses précédents écrits, en particulier, une théorie de l’âme et de ses « revêtements » (malbushim) après la mort. L’auteur insiste sur le caractère ésotérique des sujets développés en se considérant détenteur d’un savoir reçu. A plusieurs reprises, l’auteur insiste sur son hésitation à dévoiler « les secrets de la sagesse redoutable et intérieure ». Il ne cessera de préciser qu’il s’adresse à une élite, à ceux qui sont à la recherche de cette intériorité indispensable pour entendre le message de la transmission fondée sur l’enseignement ésotérique. Nous retrouvons dans cet ouvrage quelques-unes des idées les plus fascinantes de la Kabbale : que l’existence de Dieu n’est une que dans l’union des différents monde, le divin, le céleste et le terrestre ; que la relation entre Dieu et le monde est assimilable à la respiration. Ceci renvoie à la tâche de l’homme pendant son court parcours terrestre, qui n’est pas le caprice d’un créateur cruel mais correspond au projet d’unification des mondes. Naturellement, R. Moshe de Leon s’inspire du texte biblique pour confirmer ses idées, et bien d’autres. Le Mishkan ha-‘Edut est émaillé de citations bibliques, ses arguments sont construits comme un commentaire de la Bible, dont on exclut comme superficiel et fourvoyant le sens obvie. Les affirmations des rabbins du Talmud sont également très présentes, ainsi que celles des « anciens » (qadmonim), qui sont en réalité les kabbalistes de son époque ou des générations précédentes. / Mishkan ha-‘Edut, is the last important work written by Castilian cabalist R.Moshe de Leon (1240-1305). One can consider this work as an oeuvre of maturation of the author’s thought. Known by several works written in Hebrew, R.Moshe de Leon is, according to historians, one of the main authors of the prestigious Sefer ha-Zohar, written in Aramean, that the popular and rabbinic tradition attributes to R. Shim’one bar Yohaï, Galilean rabbi living in the first and second century of the Christian era. The Mishkan ha-‘Edut addresses several fundamental questions: the reason of the existence of the world and its foundation in divinity; the place of man in this world, the profound theological signification and the reason of its path on earth; the nature of transgression of divine commandment and the possibility of repentance for men as psychological beings carrying a divine derived soul; eschatology of the soul, the fate of each of its components after death, its purification in the géhenne and the nature of its stay in the garden of Eden. R.Moshe de Leon goes over, in a more structured way, several topics addressed in his previous writings. In particular, a theory of the soul and its “protections” (malbushim) after death. He insists on the esoteric aspect of the developed topics considering himself as owning a given knowledge. On several occasions, he also insists on his hesitation to disclose “the secrets of formidable and interior wisdom”. He stresses he addresses an elite, those who are seeking this necessary interiority to listen to the message of transmission based on esoteric teaching. One can find in this work some of the Kabbalah’s most fascinating ideas: that god existence is only one in the context of the merging of different worlds, the divine, the celestial and terrestrial; that the relationship between god and the world mimics breathing. This reflects to the task of man during his path on earth, not being directed by a cruel creator but that corresponds to the project of unification of these worlds. Naturally, R. Moshe de Leon takes inspiration in the bible text to confirm his ideas and many others. Mishkan ha-‘Edut is dotted with biblical citations, its arguments are built as a biblical commentary, from which is excluded, as if superficial, the spontaneous interpretation. Talmudic rabbi’s affirmations are equally present, as well as the “old”( qadmonim), who are in reality the kabbalists of his time or previous generations.

Esta tese procura registrar uma história de vida articulada por imagens da literatura apropriadas pela subjetividade no sentido de uma educação do cultivo da alma. Para isso, lanço-me, a partir de alguns trajetos de leitura, a um percurso teórico-analítico de cunho antropoliterário, no qual o texto é compreendido como mito e incorporado à história de vida do leitor como mediador simbólico inter e intrasubjetivo, cuja abertura semântica deve-se justamente à presença da imagem arquetípica segundo noção de James Hillman (1995:10). Os potenciais pedagógicos da literatura são veiculados pelas imagens portadoras do arquétipo como \"janelas de aprendizagem\" (Paula Carvalho) que permitem que o leitor transite do texto à existência e de volta, num circuito que o auxilia a promover a equilibração de polaridades e a elaboração criativa da alteridade representada, em última instância, pelo inconsciente, no sentido da construção da identidade do ego e em direção à individuação. São eixos organizadores: (1) a Arquetipologia Geral no contexto da Teoria Geral do Imaginário, de Gilbert Durand; (2) a noção de imagem no contexto da Psicologia Arquetípica, segundo James Hillman e (3) a noção de Educação Fática em José Carlos de Paula Carvalho. A partir de uma perspectiva hermenêutica que procura a abertura do discursivo rumo ao existencial (Paula Carvalho, 1998:59), recolho imagens de três obras clássicas da literatura, lidas por mim aos treze anos de idade, e que me conduziram na direção da descoberta da imagem essencial - a da educadora -, processo no qual enxergo a finalidade última da educação. As referidas obras lidas à margem da escola tornaram-se especialmente significativas devido à dinâmica proposta pela dimensão escolar oficial, também ela imprescindível para que a experiência com o significado se construísse. Retorno assim a Madame Bovary, de Gustave Flaubert, como exemplo de uma literatura para a formação da sensibilidade heróica; ao Decamerão, de Giovanni Boccaccio, como exemplo de uma literatura para a formação da sensibilidade mística e a O morro dos ventos uivantes, de Emily Brontë, como exemplo de uma literatura para a formação da sensibilidade dramática. / This present study tries to register images of a life history articulated by images of the literature - these latter ones appropriated by the subjectivity towards an education of the soul. Being so, I launch myself, starting from my experiences as a reader, into a theoretical-analytical path based on an anthropo-literary view in which literature is understood as myth and life history, i.e., as inter and intra-subjective symbolic mediator whose semantic openness is due mostly to the presence of the archetypal image - according to James Hillman\'s denomination ( 1995, 10). The pedagogical potentials of the literature are, in this way, transmitted by the images bearing an archetypal meaning that circulates from the text towards the life of the reader, to promote the equilibrium of the polarities, through the creative elaboration of alterity represented by the unconscious, in the construction of the ego´s identity. The thematic axe\'s that organize this study are: 1) The General Archetypology, of Gilbert Durand (1997); 2) the notion of image according to the Archetypal Psychology, of James Hillman (1997b). From an hermeneutic perspective, which looks for an openness that goes from the discourse towards the existential (Paula Carvalho, 1998, 59), I get images from three classical novels, in order to understand themselves in the convergence of life with reading, even guiding me to the direction of the discovery of my own essential image or daimon - in which I recognize the objective of education. The mentioned novels were read apart from school. Nevertheless, they became specially significant in my educational process due to the dynamism proposed by the official schooling dimension - also completely necessary so that this experience with meaning could be built. So, I come back to Madame Bovary, by Gustave Flaubert, as an example of a literature that forms the heroic sensibility; to Decameron, by Giovanni Bocaccio, as an example of a literature that forms the mystic sensibility; to O morro dos ventos uivantes, by Emily Brontë, as an example of a literature that forms the dramatic sensibility.

Tendo como objeto a perda progressiva da autoridade do professor, esta pesquisa foca-se sobre suas condições de possibilidade e emergência no discurso pedagógico brasileiro. Por meio da análise de artigos da Revista Brasileira de Estudos Pedagógicos, publicados entre as décadas de 1940 e 1960, investiga-se o tecido discursivo que deu suporte às teorias da Escola Nova no Brasil, e suas contribuições para que uma nova imagem docente se instaurasse. A peculiaridade do contexto brasileiro, carente de um sistema nacional de educação consolidado, fez com que se aliasse aqui o velho prestígio do ofício docente, com as novas exigências da escola renovada. Progressivamente, teorias e procedimentos de cunho psicológico foram incorporadas ao discurso, transferindo a centralidade do ensino para os alunos, e reclamando ao professor uma atitude investigativa capaz de perscrutar suas personalidades. O papel docente foi então reformulado, calcado em atributos mais íntimos e pessoais, a serem cultivados via formação contínua e por uma atitude reflexiva própria. A dimensão pessoal adentrou então o coração do ensino, fazendo da interioridade a força motriz do trabalho ali realizado. Tanto o professor, como seus alunos, deveriam submeter-se às novas regulações e controles de um governo da interioridade; capaz de transferir ao domínio de si e ao auto-governo a autoridade institucional que outrora reconhecíamos por sua externalidade e intermédio do professor. / This research studies the progressive loss of the teacher´s authority, focusing on its manifestations throughout the Brazilian educational discourse. Based on the analyses of the articles from the journal Revista Brasileira de Estudos Pedagógicos, published between 1940 and 1960, we investigate the discursive scenario that supported the theories of The New School in Brazil, as well as its contributions to the rise of a new image of the teachers. In this unique context, that lacked a consolidated national education system, the reputation of the old teachers was made compatible with the new demands of the reformed school. Progressively, theories and psychological procedures were incorporated to the discourse, transferring the aim of the studies to the students, proclaiming that teachers should investigate their personalities. The teacher´s role was then reformulated, based on intimate and personal attributes, cultivated by continuous educational training as well as a reflexive attitude towards life. This personal dimension became the heart of education, transforming interiority into the driving force of the work that is carried out. Both the teacher and the students are submitted to new regulations and restraints of a government of interiority, which is capable of transferring to self-control and self-government the institutional authority that was once recognized by its exterior form and had the teacher as its mediator.

Cette thèse propose la traduction et le commentaire de la Riyāḍa et de l’Adab al-nafs d’al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī, mystique sunnite khorasanien des 9ème et 10ème siècles de l’ère commune, connu pour l’impact qu’a eu son Kitāb khatm al-awliyā’ sur la pensée postérieure, celle d’Ibn ‘Arabī (m. 638/1240) en particulier. Ce sont deux manuels fondamentaux d’anthropologie spirituelle qui témoignent d’une mystique philosophique islamique ancienne assimilant des éléments de la pensée néoplatonicienne et de traditions religieuses orientales telles que le manichéisme et le bouddhisme. La systématisation du concept de sainteté (walāya) caractérise cette pensée que l’on pourrait qualifier de théosophique : dans la Riyāḍa et l’Adab sont ainsi exposées les règles de l’éducation de l’égo en vue de rétablir l’ascendant du cœur sur ce dernier, transformant le croyant en saint (walī). L’éthique de Tirmidhī se rapproche du principe bouddhiste selon lequel des actes apparemment identiques proviennent soit d’une motivation désintéressée soit d’une motivation égoïste. Le cœur, organe cognitif et organe de l’action, produit des actes conformes à la connaissance divine, tandis que l’âme s’approprie les actes pour satisfaire sa passion égoïste. L’anthropologie du Sage de Termez possède une dimension cosmologique, caractéristique elle aussi de la théosophie mystique : le saint, libéré de l’égo, voit apparaître en son cœur l’ordre divin régissant les mondes et devient ainsi lieutenant de Dieu, l’instrument d’une manifestation divine qui établit au sein de la communauté des croyants et dans le monde l’ordre de l’unicité et de la Loi que le culte de l’égo transgresse et corrompt. Les caractéristiques du saint chez Tirmidhī – sa connaissance et son pouvoir théophaniques – possèdent des correspondances évidentes avec celles attribuées à l’imam dans le shi‘isme. / This thesis proposes the translation of and commentary on the Riyāḍa and the Adab al-nafs of al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī, a Khorasanian Sunni mystic from the 9th and 10th centuries of the Common Era, known for the impact that his Kitāb khatm al-awliyā' had on posterior thought, that of Ibn 'Arabī (638/1240) in particular. These are two fundamental textbooks of spiritual anthropology that testify to an ancient Islamic philosophical mysticism assimilating elements of Neoplatonic thought and Eastern religious traditions such as Manichaeism and Buddhism. The systematization of the concept of holiness (walāya) characterizes this thought that could be described as theosophical: in the Riyāḍa and the Adab are thus exposed the rules of the education of the ego in order to restore the ascendancy of the heart on the latter, transforming the believer into a saint (walī). Tirmidhī's ethic is similar to the Buddhist principle that seemingly identical acts come either from selfless motivation or from a selfish motivation. The heart, the cognitive organ and the organ of action, produces acts in accordance with the knowledge of the Law and divine attributes, while the soul appropriates acts to satisfy its selfish passion. The anthropology of the sage of Termez has a cosmological dimension, also characteristic of mystical theosophy: the saint, freed from the ego, sees appearing in his heart the divine order governing the worlds and thus becomes a lieutenant of God, the instrument of a divine manifestation which establishes within the community of believers and in the world the order of Oneness (tawḥīd) and Law that the cult of the ego transgresses and corrupts. The characteristics of the saint in Tirmidhī - his theophanic knowledge and power - have obvious correspondences with those attributed to the imam in Shi'ism.