Domain names are still a relatively unknown occurrence and despite being a natural part in most people’s every-day life, there are few who reflect over their importance. The original function of domain names was merely to serve as technical addresses and to facilitate the locating of websites on the Internet. Today domain names are much more than this. In addition to the address function, domain names may also serve as indications of goods, services, businesses or information. The domain name is usually the first contact one gets with a website and it has become crucial for businesses to have their company name or trade marks registered as domain names. The issue of the legal status of domain names has mainly been discussed from an American point of view and in Sweden this discussion has almost entirely fallen under the radar. If the legal status of a domain name were clear, it would be easier for businesses to avail themselves of the value of that domain name. It would possibly even contribute to strengthening the legal protection for the domain name holder, in for example insolvency or bankruptcy procedures. Intellectual property exists in many different forms, the main being patents, trade marks, copyright and design rights. Although there are many differences between them, they all have in common that they establish property protection over intangibles such as ideas, inventions, signs and information. As a domain name is not a physical object, there can be no doubt that it is an intangible. The question is whether it is property. Intellectual property is not a static area and it can, in line with societal and technological development, be expanded to include new types. The legal status of domain names is generally discussed in the light of the close connection they have with trade marks. Except from their original function, the trade mark function of domain names can probably be considered as one of the most commonly accepted. It is indicated in this thesis that that function contributes to that a domain name can be considered as a distinctive sign and thereby obtain protection, in the same way as an unregistered trade mark. According to current accounting rules, businesses may, to some extent, avail themselves of the value of a domain name. Domain names are under certain circumstances identified as intangible assets and even as ‘similar rights’ to for example trade marks and patents in accounting and taxation situations. At this time it is not possible to legislate on the area of the legal status of a domain name on a Community level, as this most likely would have to include a consideration of the existence of property rights and consequently fall outside the legislative powers of the Community. Both the legal development and the legal discussions on the topic of the legal status of domain names in Sweden have been relatively sparse. Nonetheless, there have been some interesting opinions. By investigating what positions the different authorities, academics and practitioners have taken on the legal status of domain names it can be concluded that the prevailing opinion in Sweden is that domain names are not considered as property. The reason for this seems to be that domain names as such, are in fact no more than technical constructions and that by registering a domain name the registrant only becomes the holder of a contractual right. However, there are some diverging opinions which could suggest that the legal status of domain names in Sweden is not yet settled. The aspects which are then taken into consideration include that domain names have developed to become important and valuable assets for an increasing number of businesses. A domain name is a precondition for the creation of a website and therefore of crucial importance for, in particular, online based businesses. However, they are of increasing importance for all businesses to reach out to and compete over the same customers. It is advocated that the fact that domain names are freely traded with indicates that domain names are property. It has also been questioned whether an asset with a true economic value, such as a domain name, can exist without being considered as an item of property. The steps taken in other jurisdictions have shown that the legal status of domain names is not even clear in some of the countries with the greatest experience of domain names. Nonetheless, the legal status is given attention in those countries and the discussion has been initiated. In general, it can be concluded that the development seems to go toward higher awareness of the value of domain names.

Historiskt sett har bostadsfastigheter begränsats till den areal som krävs för att fastigheten väsentligen ska få karaktär av en bostadstomt. En ökad efterfrågan på ett attraktivt landsbygdsboende resulterade i ändringar av fastighetsbildningslagen, vilket gjorde det möjligt att bilda stora bostadsfastigheter med kombinerat ändamål, helt i linje med den gällande glesbygdspolitiken. Fortfarande fanns det dock restriktioner mot att tillföra skogsmark till bostadsfastigheter för att skydda det produktiva skogsbruket. Lantmäteriet tog därför fram arbetsrekommendationer för att underlätta möjligheten att tillföra skogsskiften, bland annat för uttag av husbehovsved. Denna studie hade syftet att undersöka hur lagändringen med efterföljande arbetsrekommendationer påverkat bildandet av stora bostadsfastigheter på landsbygden. Varför människor flyttar är en viktig fråga för både forskare inom området och politiker, eftersom regionalpolitik bör anpassas till var människor vill bo och varför de väljer att flytta dit. Tidigare studier har framförallt fokuserat på ekonomiska flyttmotiv, men boendemiljöns och naturens inverkan har belysts alltmer under de senare åren. Den betydelse fastighetens fysiska utformning har för flyttbeslutet är dock mindre utrett. Vi har därför undersökt om och hur dessa fastigheter påverkat bosättningen på landsbygden inom de utvalda kommunerna. Studien bestod dels av en postenkät till de fastighetsägare som innehar dessa stora bostadsfastigheter med ingående skogsskiften, dels semistrukturerade intervjuer med lantmätare som genomfört dessa förrättningar. Sammantaget såg vi att stora bostadsfastigheter med skog och mark var en anledning till den kontraurbanisering som skett eftersom flera av de flyttskäl som angetts varit svåra att uppnå med en annan typ av fastighet. Även om lantmätarnas bedömning skiljde sig när det gällde detaljer så uppfylldes det huvudsakliga syftet att bilda lämpliga och attraktiva bostadsfastigheter utan att det produktiva skogsbruket skadats. Slutsatsen att de fastigheter som bildats upplevs som attraktiva drog vi genom att de som flyttat till dessa fastigheter utnyttjade de möjligheter som fanns med detta boende. / Historically, residential property is limited to the area needed for the property to substantially have the character of a residential plot. An increased demand for an attractive rural housing resulted in changes to property law, which made it possible to form large residential properties with combined purposes, all in line with the existing rural policy. Still, however, there were restrictions to bring forest land to residential plots for the protection of the productive forestry. The Swedish mapping, cadastral and land registration authority (Lantmäteriet) have therefore created working recommendations to facilitate the opportunity to incorporate forest plots, including the collection of firewood for household use. This study had the aim to investigate how the amended legislation, with subsequent work recommendations influenced the formation of large residential properties in rural areas. Why people move is an important issue for both researchers in the field and politicians, as the regional policy should be adapted to where people want to live and why they choose to move there. Previous studies have mainly focused on economic motives, but the living environment and nature’s impact has been increasingly highlighted in recent years. The importance of the property’s physical design for the decision to move, however, is less investigated. We have therefore examined whether and how those properties affected settlement in rural areas within the selected municipalities. The study consisted partly of a postal questionnaire to the property owners who hold these large residential properties with forest parcels included and semi-structured interviews with surveyors who carried out these missions. Overall, we saw that large residential properties with forest and land was a reason for the counter-urbanization that has taken place because many of the migratory reasons given have been difficult to achieve with a different type of property. Although surveyors’ assessment differed in terms of details the main purpose to create appropriate and attractive residential properties without the productive forest damaged was fulfilled. We made the conclusion that the property formed, perceived as attractive by those who moved to these properties because they took advantage of the opportunities available with this accommodation.

In the search for companies to distinguish themselves from the mass, so called non-traditional trade marks have become increasingly popular, and in particular colour marks. It is now clear that abstract colour marks can be registered as trade marks, and the number of registered colour marks has increased considerably in recent years. However, it remains a lot more uncertain, mainly due to lack of case law, what the extent of colour marks’ scope of protection is. Are colours actually worth protecting? The purpose of this thesis is to examine the scope of protection of registered abstract colour marks from an EU perspective. Through this examination it will also be established whether colours are worth protecting. The essential function of trade marks is to indicate the origin of products. Signs that are capable of being represented graphically and capable of distinguishing goods and services from one undertaking from those of other undertakings can be registered as trade marks. Colours can fulfil these criteria in certain circumstances, however, colours can practically never have distinctive character per se. Instead, they must have acquired distinctive character through use. Since it is quite difficult to register colour marks, a colour mark proprietor should be prepared to have the validity of his trade mark challenged if he issues proceedings for infringement. There are a few national cases from EU Member States that have concerned infringement of colour marks, and in all of these the plaintiff was successful in claiming infringement. Through the decisions in these cases, general legal principles and statements made in literature, the scope of protection of colour marks has been examined. Infringement of a colour mark occurs in three different situations: where there is likelihood of confusion, where there is double identity and where there is dilution of a trade mark with a reputation. Some of the most important findings are that confusingly similar colours include adjacent shades, but in order to prove likelihood of confusion, the infringing colour must probably be perceived by the public as an indication of origin and other signs that appear together with the colour must probably be taken into account, which limits the scope of protection to some extent. However, since colour marks must almost always have acquired distinctive character through use, consumers are used to perceiving that colour as a trade mark in relation to those types of goods/services, and are therefore more likely to do so also when the colour is used by the third party. Furthermore, there have to be an individual assessment in each case in order to determine whether surrounding signs exclude a likelihood of confusion, where all factors should be considered, including the distinctiveness of the colour mark and how clear and prominent the other signs are. In situations of double identity, the infringing sign does not have to be used as a trade mark, which is advantageous for colour mark owners. Furthermore, identical colours can possibly include other shades if they are so similar that the difference is barely perceptible in a direct comparison. Colour marks can often qualify as trade marks with a reputation, since the assessment of whether trade marks have a reputation is similar to the assessment of whether trade marks have acquired distinctive character through use. Trade marks with a reputation has an extended protection meaning that if a third party uses a sign that is identical or similar to a trade mark with a reputation, and that use without due cause takes unfair advantage of, or is detrimental to, the distinctive character or repute of the trade mark, then that use constitutes infringement. This applies both in relation to identical, similar and dissimilar products, however, it will probably only apply in relation to identical or similar products when it comes to colour marks, due to the extensive use of colours in the market. The extended protection could be relevant in particular in situations where likelihood of confusion cannot be proven, because the public does not perceive the infringing sign as a trade mark or because of surrounding prominent signs. This examination shows that the scope of protection of colour marks is not great, it has some weaknesses. However, it is definitely not worthless either, which clearly shows in the fact that the plaintiffs were successful in claiming infringement in all of the infringement cases. By registering a colour as a trade mark, a company can to some extent stop others from using the same or similar colour, and it will also most likely have a discouraging effect. However, some carefulness should still be applied in relation to colour marks, since this is still a very new phenomenon and additional case law can take another direction. But considering how the situation looks today, colours are worth protecting as trade marks.

Internettjänsten The Pirate Bay fälldes av Svea hovrätt den 26 november 2010 för medhjälp till brott mot URL med motiveringen att denna tjänst främjat fildelning av upphovsrättsligt skyddat material utan upphovsmännens samtycke. Bestämmelsen i 23 kap 4 § 2 st. BrB lyder, ”ansvar som i denna balk är föreskrivet för viss gärning skall ådömas inte bara den som utfört gärningen utan även annan som främjat denna med råd eller dåd. Detsamma skall gälla beträffande i annan lag eller författning straffbelagd gärning, för vilken fängelse är föreskrivet.” I dagsläget finns ett flertal tjänster av liknande karaktär såsom söktjänsten Google och videotjänsten Youtube. Dessa har inte prövats av svensk rätt men åtnjuter skydd av E-handelslagen trots att de i praktiken kan anses fungera som The Pirate Bay. Skillnaden är att dessa aktivt handlar för att förebygga förekomsten av upphovsrättsligt skyddat material utan upphovsmännens samtycke. Trots detta förekommer en betydande mängd upphovsrättsligt skyddat material som med stor sannolikhet inte gjorts tillgängligt för allmänheten med upphovsmännens samtycke. Dessa aktörer kan teoretiskt sätt upprätta en policy mot spridning av olovligt material som är tillräcklig för att väga upp den skadan som tillförs upphovsmännen, på så sätt åtnjuter de titeln informationssamhällets tjänst, de vill säga samhällsnyttan väger över den tillförda skadan enligt E-handelslagen. Hovrättens deldom i Pirate Bay-målet är nu en milstolpe för dessa aktörer avseende tolkningen av medhjälpsbegreppet i BrB, men det är ändock av vikt att HD samt EU-domstolen klargör den diffusa gränsen mellan definitionen informationssamhällets tjänst och tolkningen av ordalydelsen i 23 kap 4 § 2 st. BrB (medhjälpsbegreppet). / The Pirate Bay was convicted by the Svea Court of Appeals in November 26, 2010 for aiding in crime against Swedish Copyright Law on the grounds that this service promoted the sharing of copyright material without the authors’ consent. The wording in chapter 23, paragraph 4, part 2 of the Swedish Criminal Code reads, "responsibilities in this section are prescribed for a specific act, it shall be imposed not only on those who carried out the deed, but also the one that facilitated this by giving advice or carrying out deeds. The same shall apply in relation to another law or constitutional criminal offense for which imprisonment is prescribed." Nowadays there are several services of similar nature such as the search engine Google and the video streaming service Youtube. These services have not been tested by Swedish law, since they are protected by the Swedish E-Commerce Law. Google and Youtube actively take actions to prevent the occurrence of copyrighted material without the authors' consent. However, there is a considerable amount of copyright material, which most probably has been made available to the public without the authors' consent. These companies can in theory establish a policy against the proliferation of unauthorized materials in an amount sufficient to offset the damage which affects the copyright owners, but still enjoy the title of information society services in the E-Commerce Law, since the social benefits are larger than the caused injury. The Swedish Court of Appeal's judgement is now a landmark for similar services when it comes to the interpretation of aiding crime against the Swedish copyright law. It is nevertheless important that the Supreme Court of Sweden and the EU-court defines the cloudy boundary between the definition information society services and the interpretation of the wording in the 23 chapter 4 § 2 part, Swedish penal code.

<p>Domain names are still a relatively unknown occurrence and despite being a natural part in</p><p>most people’s every-day life, there are few who reflect over their importance. The original</p><p>function of domain names was merely to serve as technical addresses and to facilitate the</p><p>locating of websites on the Internet. Today domain names are much more than this. In</p><p>addition to the address function, domain names may also serve as indications of goods,</p><p>services, businesses or information. The domain name is usually the first contact one gets</p><p>with a website and it has become crucial for businesses to have their company name or</p><p>trade marks registered as domain names. The issue of the legal status of domain names has</p><p>mainly been discussed from an American point of view and in Sweden this discussion has</p><p>almost entirely fallen under the radar. If the legal status of a domain name were clear, it</p><p>would be easier for businesses to avail themselves of the value of that domain name. It</p><p>would possibly even contribute to strengthening the legal protection for the domain name</p><p>holder, in for example insolvency or bankruptcy procedures.</p><p>Intellectual property exists in many different forms, the main being patents, trade marks,</p><p>copyright and design rights. Although there are many differences between them, they all</p><p>have in common that they establish property protection over intangibles such as ideas,</p><p>inventions, signs and information. As a domain name is not a physical object, there can be</p><p>no doubt that it is an intangible. The question is whether it is property. Intellectual</p><p>property is not a static area and it can, in line with societal and technological development,</p><p>be expanded to include new types.</p><p>The legal status of domain names is generally discussed in the light of the close connection</p><p>they have with trade marks. Except from their original function, the trade mark function of</p><p>domain names can probably be considered as one of the most commonly accepted. It is</p><p>indicated in this thesis that that function contributes to that a domain name can be</p><p>considered as a distinctive sign and thereby obtain protection, in the same way as an</p><p>unregistered trade mark.</p><p>According to current accounting rules, businesses may, to some extent, avail themselves of</p><p>the value of a domain name. Domain names are under certain circumstances identified as</p><p>intangible assets and even as ‘similar rights’ to for example trade marks and patents in</p><p>accounting and taxation situations.</p><p>At this time it is not possible to legislate on the area of the legal status of a domain name</p><p>on a Community level, as this most likely would have to include a consideration of the</p><p>existence of property rights and consequently fall outside the legislative powers of the</p><p>Community.</p><p>Both the legal development and the legal discussions on the topic of the legal status of</p><p>domain names in Sweden have been relatively sparse. Nonetheless, there have been some</p><p>interesting opinions.</p><p>By investigating what positions the different authorities, academics and practitioners have</p><p>taken on the legal status of domain names it can be concluded that the prevailing opinion</p><p>in Sweden is that domain names are not considered as property. The reason for this seems</p><p>to be that domain names as such, are in fact no more than technical constructions and that</p><p>by registering a domain name the registrant only becomes the holder of a contractual right.</p><p>However, there are some diverging opinions which could suggest that the legal status of</p><p>domain names in Sweden is not yet settled. The aspects which are then taken into</p><p>consideration include that domain names have developed to become important and</p><p>valuable assets for an increasing number of businesses. A domain name is a precondition</p><p>for the creation of a website and therefore of crucial importance for, in particular, online</p><p>based businesses. However, they are of increasing importance for all businesses to reach</p><p>out to and compete over the same customers.</p><p>It is advocated that the fact that domain names are freely traded with indicates that domain</p><p>names are property. It has also been questioned whether an asset with a true economic</p><p>value, such as a domain name, can exist without being considered as an item of property.</p><p>The steps taken in other jurisdictions have shown that the legal status of domain names is</p><p>not even clear in some of the countries with the greatest experience of domain names.</p><p>Nonetheless, the legal status is given attention in those countries and the discussion has</p><p>been initiated. In general, it can be concluded that the development seems to go toward</p><p>higher awareness of the value of domain names.</p>

<p>In the search for companies to distinguish themselves from the mass, so called non-traditional trade marks have become increasingly popular, and in particular colour marks. It is now clear that abstract colour marks can be registered as trade marks, and the number of registered colour marks has increased considerably in recent years. However, it remains a lot more uncertain, mainly due to lack of case law, what the extent of colour marks’ scope of protection is. Are colours actually worth protecting? The purpose of this thesis is to examine the scope of protection of registered abstract colour marks from an EU perspective. Through this examination it will also be established whether colours are worth protecting.</p><p>The essential function of trade marks is to indicate the origin of products. Signs that are capable of being represented graphically and capable of distinguishing goods and services from one undertaking from those of other undertakings can be registered as trade marks. Colours can fulfil these criteria in certain circumstances, however, colours can practically never have distinctive character per se. Instead, they must have acquired distinctive character through use. Since it is quite difficult to register colour marks, a colour mark proprietor should be prepared to have the validity of his trade mark challenged if he issues proceedings for infringement.</p><p>There are a few national cases from EU Member States that have concerned infringement of colour marks, and in all of these the plaintiff was successful in claiming infringement. Through the decisions in these cases, general legal principles and statements made in literature, the scope of protection of colour marks has been examined. Infringement of a colour mark occurs in three different situations: where there is likelihood of confusion, where there is double identity and where there is dilution of a trade mark with a reputation.</p><p>Some of the most important findings are that confusingly similar colours include adjacent shades, but in order to prove likelihood of confusion, the infringing colour must probably be perceived by the public as an indication of origin and other signs that appear together with the colour must probably be taken into account, which limits the scope of protection to some extent. However, since colour marks must almost always have acquired distinctive character through use, consumers are used to perceiving that colour as a trade mark in relation to those types of goods/services, and are therefore more likely to do so also when the colour is used by the third party. Furthermore, there have to be an individual assessment in each case in order to determine whether surrounding signs exclude a likelihood of confusion, where all factors should be considered, including the distinctiveness of the colour mark and how clear and prominent the other signs are.</p><p>In situations of double identity, the infringing sign does not have to be used as a trade mark, which is advantageous for colour mark owners. Furthermore, identical colours can possibly include other shades if they are so similar that the difference is barely perceptible in a direct comparison.</p><p>Colour marks can often qualify as trade marks with a reputation, since the assessment of whether trade marks have a reputation is similar to the assessment of whether trade marks have acquired distinctive character through use. Trade marks with a reputation has an extended protection meaning that if a third party uses a sign that is identical or similar to a trade mark with a reputation, and that use without due cause takes unfair advantage of, or is detrimental to, the distinctive character or repute of the trade mark, then that use constitutes infringement. This applies both in relation to identical, similar and dissimilar products, however, it will probably only apply in relation to identical or similar products when it comes to colour marks, due to the extensive use of colours in the market. The extended protection could be relevant in particular in situations where likelihood of confusion cannot be proven, because the public does not perceive the infringing sign as a trade mark or because of surrounding prominent signs.</p><p>This examination shows that the scope of protection of colour marks is not great, it has some weaknesses. However, it is definitely not worthless either, which clearly shows in the fact that the plaintiffs were successful in claiming infringement in all of the infringement cases. By registering a colour as a trade mark, a company can to some extent stop others from using the same or similar colour, and it will also most likely have a discouraging effect. However, some carefulness should still be applied in relation to colour marks, since this is still a very new phenomenon and additional case law can take another direction. But considering how the situation looks today, colours are worth protecting as trade marks.</p>

Ce mémoire de maîtrise présente une situation dans laquelle un citoyen ordinaire tente de diffuser sur Internet une opinion critique qu'il dirige contre une grande entreprise commerciale et tente d'analyser les éléments favorables à la diffusion de cette opinion critique ainsi que les embûches qui sont à prévoir. Cet exemple permet d'illustrer les forces et les faiblesses d'Internet en matière de liberté d'expression. Il permet de poser une mise en garde concernant les dangers de transposer les limites actuelles à la liberté d'expression des citoyens au contexte d'Internet. La première partie de l'analyse souligne les caractéristiques d'Internet et les différentes façons d'aborder la question de la liberté d'expression sur Internet selon les approches libertaire, libérale ou interventionniste, pour finalement faire le point sur l'apport d'Internet en matière d'information et de communication. La deuxième partie de l'analyse aborde la question de l'efficience en identifiant les éléments qui encouragent l'exercice de la liberté d'expression et ceux qui découragent les utilisateurs de s'exprimer sur Internet. L'exemple des critiques dirigées contre les oligopoles permet d'illustrer la nécessité d'établir des règles propres à Internet en matière de liberté d'expression. Cet exemple fait ressortir le caractère inadéquat des limites actuelles à la liberté d'expression établies par le droit de la presse, le droit de la radiodiffusion, le droit de propriété et le droit de la propriété intellectuelle. L'auteur vient à la conclusion qu'en matière de liberté d'expression, il serait souhaitable: 1) Que Internet soit considéré comme un espace public de discussion; 2) Que la préséance des intérêts économiques sur les intérêts démocratiques au niveau du développement de la société de l'information soit avouée; 3) Que les inégalités en termes d'opportunités d'expression soient reconnues; 4) Que les limites imposées en vertu des règles du droit de la propriété soient reconsidérées à la lumière des caractéristiques d'Internet. / This master thesis presents a case in which an ordinary citizen tries to spread on the Internet a criticizing opinion aimed at a large company, and attempts to analyse what are the elements in favour of this criticism broadcasting, as weil as the obstacles to be expected. This example allows us to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of the Internet in matter of freedom of speech. It also allows to put forward a warning concerning the risks of transposing current Iimits of freedom of speech in an Internet context. The first part of the analysis underlines the Internet's characteristics and the different ways to broach the subject of freedom of speech over the Internet, following severaI approaches, to finally focus on the Internet's contribution in matter of information and communication. The second part of the analysis deals with the question of efficiency, while identifying the elements that encourage the exercise of freedom of speech and those that discourage Internet users from expressing themselves. The example of criticism aimed toward large companies allows to illustrate the need to establish the Internet's own rules in matter of freedom of speech. What emerges from this example is the inadequate character of current limits to freedom of speech as set up by freedom of the press, broadcasting law, property and intellectual property law. The author concludes that in matter of freedom of speech, it wouId be recommended: 1) that the Internet be considered as a public forum; 2) that the predominance of economic interests over democratic interests in the development of the information society be admitted; 3) that the inequalities in terms of expression opportunities be recognized; 4) that the limits imposed in accordance with property law be reconsidered in an Internet context. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maîtrise en droit option droit des technologies de l'information"

The main objective with this study was to investigate so called odd purposes acceptable when registrating property along with how social development affects these purposes, furthermore to investigate how the cadastral surveyors estimates a foreseeable time. Tradition and praxis is used for several obvious purposes such as housing, farming, forests, offices and industry. Praxis is yet to be defined regarding more unique purposes. There is no mention in the law about which purposes are found acceptable to assure the demands on suitability are met. Cadastral authorities are responsible for making sure the division into property units is uniform and rule of law-accordingly. This study illustrates the issue of how the cadastral operation applies the rules to support a uniform application of the rule. A legal method, a survey analysis, an interview analysis and a case study were methods used in the study to answer the purpose and research questions. The legal method was used to learn more about the legal position. The survey was performed in order to gather data and information about which purposes previously have been regarded as odd by the cadastral surveyors. To obtain an understanding about and background to the selected odd purposes, an interview study was conducted with the cadastral surveyors. The intent of the case study was to form a base and insight in how the odd purposes are valued. The result of the legal method showed proof of how to interpret the prerequisite in the law. The survey provided information about which odd purposes are used in dividing of property. The interview study was based on the results from the survey and the information gathered from it. Answers regarding the background to the cadastral procedures were given, as well as the concept purpose, its origin and the evaluation of the time concept foreseeable time. The case study provided a background to the decision making and history about the debate as well as how purpose has been a question when making assessments. The most important conclusion made was that the prerequisite, intended function, current circumstances and requirements determine an acceptable purpose. The same factors determine the assessment of foreseeable time and as a result the concept varies from case to case. Social development causes the conditions for dividing into property units to be interchangeable, as a result the possible purposes changes with them. A more uniform application of the rule, considering the prerequisites, intended function, current circumstances and requirements should so be applied. / Huvudsyftet med studien var att undersöka vilka ”udda” ändamål som kan godtas vid fastighetsbildning med delsyften om hur samhällsutvecklingen påverkar ändamålen och att undersöka hur förrättningslantmätarna bedömer ”överskådlig tid”. Tradition och praxis finns för ett flertal ändamål som kan anses vara självklara, till exempel bostad, jordbruk, skog, kontor och industri. För mer udda ändamål är praxis oklar. Lagen talar inte om vilka ändamål som kan anses vara godtagbara för att kraven om lämplighet ska anses uppfyllda. Lantmäterimyndigheterna har till uppgift att ansvara för en enhetlig och rättssäker fastighetsindelning. Studien belyser frågan om hur lantmäteriverksamheten tillämpar reglerna idag för att ge stöd åt en enhetlig rättstillämpning. Metoder som använts i studien för att besvara syfte och forskningsfrågor var en juridisk metod, en enkätstudie, en intervjustudie och en rättsfallsstudie. Den juridiska metoden användes för att få kunskap om rättsläget. Enkätstudien genomfördes för att samla data och information om ändamål som förrättningslantmätarna ansett vara ”udda”. För att få förståelse och en bakgrund till förrättningarna av de utvalda ”udda” ändamålen genomfördes en intervjustudie med förrättningslantmätarna. Rättsfallsstudien syftade till att få en grund och inblick i hur ”udda” ändamål bedömts. Resultatet av den juridiska metoden visade på hur rekvisiten i lagen ska tolkas. Enkätstudien gav information för vilka ”udda” ändamål det fastighetsbildats. Intervjustudien grundade sig på enkätstudiens resultat och den information som lämnats. Den gav svar på förrättningarnas bakgrund, begreppet ändamålet och dess tillkomst och bedömningen av tidsbegreppet ”överskådlig tid”. Rättsfallsstudien gav en bakgrund till besluten och om hur diskussionerna förts samt huruvida ändamålet varit föremål för bedömning. Den viktigaste slutsatsen var att det är rekvisiten, den tilltänkta funktion, den rådande situation och behoven som avgör vilket ändamål som är godtagbart. Samma faktorer avgör bedömningen av överskådlig tid som i och med det varierar från fall till fall. Samhällsutvecklingen medför att förutsättningarna för fastighetsbildning är föränderliga och därmed förändras också möjliga ändamål. En enhetlig rättstillämpning bör därmed ske utifrån rekvisiten, den tilltänkta funktion, den rådande situation och behoven.

Syftet med denna uppsats är att i en jämförande studie utreda skillnaderna beträffande gällande rätt avseende upplysningsskyldigheten för säljaren vid fastighetsköp respektive vid köp av lös egendom. Uppsatsen ska även utreda huruvida skillnaderna är motiverade för säljaren av en vara. Någon bestämmelse som tar sikte på säljarens upplysningsskyldighet finns inte i 4 kap. JB. Av förarbetena framgår det att undersökningsplikten är utgångspunkten för felansvaret och att det inte finns någon generell upplysningsskyldighet för säljaren. I NJA 2007 s. 86 ansågs det motiverat att frångå gängse riskfördelning och ålägga fastighetssäljaren en upplysningsskyldighet, vilken tillsynes verkar ha en generell karaktär. I nämnda rättsfall dras paralleller med avtalsvillkoret i 19 § 1 st. 2 p. KöpL, som ger ett visst mått av upplysningsskyldighet. Inom doktrin är det omdiskuterat om säljaren i vissa situationer ska ha en sådan skyldighet. Efter avgörandet i NJA 2007 s. 86 kan det fastställas att det nu etablerats en upplysningsskyldighet vid sidan av AvtL:s ogiltighetsregler. Mot bakgrund av förarbetena, praxis och doktrin som behandlats gällande 19 § KöpL kan det konstateras att det inte finns ett klart stöd för att säljarens upplysningsskyldighet går vid sidan av AvtL:s ogiltighetsregler. Fastighetssäljaren ansvarar efter NJA 2007 s. 86 redan vid den lägre graden ohederlighet, vilket kan anses ha skapat en slags diskrepans mellan säljaren av lös egendom och fastighetssäljaren. Min sammantagna slutsats blir därmed att de skillnader som nu skapats i gällande rätt beträffande säljarens upplysningsskyldighet vid försäljning av en vara inte är motiverade, med hänsyn till den diskrepans som nu skapats mellan egendomsslagen och som inte kan undgå att betecknas som en generell upplysningsskyldighet för fastighetssäljaren. / The purpose of this thesis is to, in a comparative study, examine differences in the law concerning the obligation for a vendor to inform at real estate purchase and purchase of movable property. The thesis shall also examine whether the differences are justified for the vendor of goods. A provision that refers to the seller's obligation to inform doesn’t exist in ch. 4 JB. The legislative history shows that the buyer’s obligation to inspect is the basis for the allocation of liability and that there isn’t a general obligation for the vendor to inform. In NJA 2007 p. 86, it was considered justifiable to depart from the usual risk allocation and impose a real estate vendor an obligation to inform, which seems to be general. The case mentioned above draws parallels with the contractual term of 19 § 1p. (2) AvtL, which gives a certain degree of obligation to inform. In doctrine, it’s debated whether the vendor in some situations should have such an obligation. After the ruling in NJA 2007 p. 86, an obligation to inform alongside AvtL’s rules on invalidity has now been established. With regard to legislative history, case law and doctrine examined concerning 19 § 1p. (2) AvtL, it can be concluded that there isn’t a clear support that the vendor’s obligation to inform goes alongside the AvtL’s rules on invalidity. The vendor of real estate is liable now by NJA 2007 p. 86 already at the lower degree of dishonesty, which might have created a sort of discrepancy between the vendor of movable property and the vendor of real estate. My overall conclusion is therefore that the current differences created in the law regarding the vendor's obligation to inform when vending goods can’t be justified, having regard to the discrepancy that emerged between asset classes and which can’t avoid to qualify as a general obligation to inform for the vendor of real estate.

Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) licences channel the exclusionary and individualising force of copyright to establish a qualitatively different, somewhat subversive, system for the exploitation of software. This thesis examines how it is that FOSS licences establish this 'system within a system' under both German and United States law. The inquiry begins with a detailed examination of FOSS licence templates as the instruments which transform code from its default position as the 'res' of proprietary relations to its status as 'open' or 'free'. The thesis then considers whether FOSS licence templates, as the legal basis for this subversive move, are valid and enforceable under domestic law. In addressing this question, the thesis undertakes a critical analysis of the leading case law in each jurisdiction. Going beyond the immediate case law, the thesis considers the broader systemic effects of FOSS licence enforcement. It highlights how building a system within a system foments certain tensions and contradictions within the law, in turn giving rise to unintended consequences and legal uncertainty. By highlighting these tensions, the thesis argues that the questions of FOSS licence enforcement in Germany and the United States may not be as settled as some may think.