It is undeniable that internet nowadays is part of our life and community. Internet opens door for expression of ideas and opinions which can both be given and taken freely. Moreover, with the rise of the new internet model, Web 2.0, the platform becomes wider and more interactive which has an effect on the copyright aspect all over the world. User-generated content was soon born as a result of Web 2.0 and caused unsolvable legal issues in the copyright regime due to its transformative nature which acts in contrary to the exclusive right of the author.          This thesis paper seeks the best solutions for the complicated nature of user-generated content in online platform which has been causing legal tension in copyright law for quite some time. The paper will focus mainly in the scope of EU copyright law as well as Thai copyright law. The Canadian new specific exception for user-generated content and its semi-open “fair dealing” exception will be discussed as a possible approach to the solution. Moreover, Human rights aspect in scope of freedom of expression will be analyzed in order to find the balance between the copyright and human rights in the most effective way to serve the core purpose of copyright law.

L’usufruit est une institution ancienne, dont les origines remontent au droit romain. Les rédacteurs du Code civil se sont inspirés de sa définition telle qu’elle figurait au Digeste. La plupart des solutions qu’ils avaient énoncées n’ont pas été modifiées depuis 1804. Or, le XXe siècle a vu se développer des valeurs nouvelles, caractérisées par leur absence de corpus. Ces biens incorporels, une fois réservés par le droit, sont devenus les objets de l’antique institution. La qualité d’associé revendiquée par l’usufruitier, l’appréhension des réserves distribuées par une société ou la possibilité de conclure des contrats d’exploitation d’une oeuvre sont autant de sources de difficultés. Plutôt que de multiplier les réponses occasionnelles et les droits spéciaux, l’occasion est peut-être donnée de repenser fondamentalement l’institution et de revenir sur sa nature juridique. La sauvegarde des utilités de la chose apparaît alors comme une clef de compréhension du droit et de délimitation des prérogatives de son titulaire. / Usufruct is an ancient institution, which dates back to Roman law. The draftsmen of the civil code were inspired by the definition contained in the Digest (Corpus Juris Civilis). Most of the principles that were set out have not changed since 1804. However, the twentieth century saw the development of new incorporeal properties. Once enshrined by law, these intangibles assets have become the object of the ancient institution. Shareholder’s status and rights claimed by the usufructuary in a company, the apprehension of distributed reserve funds, or the ability to enter into a contract for the exploitation of Intellectual Property rights are all a source of difficulty. Rather than multiplying piecemeal solutions and specific rights, opportunity may be given to fundamentally rethink the institution and reconsider its legal nature. Safeguarding the uses of the property appears to be key to the understanding of the law and of the delimitation of its holder’s prerogatives.

<p>For many years pharmaceutical patents and their impact on prices have been at the centre of the international debate over insufficient access to lifesaving HIV/AIDS medicines in developing countries. The conflict has largely revolved around the implementation of an intellectual property system in the developing world, subsequent the adaptation of the TRIPS Agreement, which has made a 20 year pharmaceutical patent protection mandatory for these countries and consequently contributed to high drug prices for patented medicines as well as limited the use of generic drugs.</p><p>Developing countries, where patents are already in place, have sought to reduce high drug prices by making use of compulsory licensing, a safeguarding practice allowing the production or importation of a generic medicine without the consent of the patent holder. Compulsory licences are allowed under the TRIPS Agreement, but disagreements about the conditions, under which compulsory licences are available for ‘essential medicines’, have restricted their use. A definition of the extent to which compulsory licensees can export generic drugs to developing countries unable to manufacture their own has been missing, but on 30 August 2003 the WTO announced that it had resolved this problem by lifting the TRIPS Agreement’s restrictions on exports and permitting exports of drugs produced under a compulsory license as an exception to a patent right. The main question is whether the compulsory licensing system as prescribed in the recent Decision is an ample means of improving access to patented AIDS medicines in the developing world.</p><p>By means of legal and economic reasoning this master thesis argues that the 30 August Decision on lifting TRIPS’ restrictions on exports of patented pharmaceuticals produced under compulsory licences provides complex and uncertain rules, rendering an unreliable employment of compulsory licensing. It is desirable that further recommendations are given on which generic producing companies should be awarded compulsory licences and also on which premises. In reality, the debate about compulsory licensing is part of a much wider structural problem in development policy. The solution to the inaccessibility problem requires a mix of courses of action with a functioning compulsory licensing system included. However, disagreements such as how necessary funding should be divided equitably between developed countries could protract the reaching of a pragmatic solution.</p>

As a response to trade marks’ enhanced importance within trade, the EU’s interest in the area has increased by proponing a harmonization of the member states’ trade mark pro-tection so far as needed to preserve the EU’s objective of an internal market. The area is therefore regulated by an EU Directive, however allowing some national discretion. The purpose of this study was to investigate if a specific part of the trade mark protec-tion, the assessment-based confusion doctrine, corresponds on a Swedish and EU level. The aim was to locate statutory discrepancies in order to stimulate further review of the practical application of the doctrine from the analytical perspective of legal certainty. A scientifically accepted and traditional legal research method was applied when ex-amining and interpreting the sources of law. In addition, a comparative study was con-ducted between the two investigated legal systems to achieve the overall purpose. When comparing the results from the investigated sources, the legislations present a sta-tutory diversity, opening up for practical discrepancies. So was also the case with the application at the early stage of national implementation of the EU Directive. The tradi-tional national confusion doctrine, prescribing a more legal-technical assessment, did not correspond to the more flexible and contemporary EU view. Consequently, some national courts had to endure criticism for not adjusting to the EU development. Later case law however presents a very positive transition to the EU view of the confu-sion doctrine, suggesting a partial abandonment of the national legal sources of law for the benefit of EU law. Conclusion was however that despite this practical transition to EU law, statutory changes are necessary in order to safeguard the legal certainty in the way of achieving predictability.

For many years pharmaceutical patents and their impact on prices have been at the centre of the international debate over insufficient access to lifesaving HIV/AIDS medicines in developing countries. The conflict has largely revolved around the implementation of an intellectual property system in the developing world, subsequent the adaptation of the TRIPS Agreement, which has made a 20 year pharmaceutical patent protection mandatory for these countries and consequently contributed to high drug prices for patented medicines as well as limited the use of generic drugs. Developing countries, where patents are already in place, have sought to reduce high drug prices by making use of compulsory licensing, a safeguarding practice allowing the production or importation of a generic medicine without the consent of the patent holder. Compulsory licences are allowed under the TRIPS Agreement, but disagreements about the conditions, under which compulsory licences are available for ‘essential medicines’, have restricted their use. A definition of the extent to which compulsory licensees can export generic drugs to developing countries unable to manufacture their own has been missing, but on 30 August 2003 the WTO announced that it had resolved this problem by lifting the TRIPS Agreement’s restrictions on exports and permitting exports of drugs produced under a compulsory license as an exception to a patent right. The main question is whether the compulsory licensing system as prescribed in the recent Decision is an ample means of improving access to patented AIDS medicines in the developing world. By means of legal and economic reasoning this master thesis argues that the 30 August Decision on lifting TRIPS’ restrictions on exports of patented pharmaceuticals produced under compulsory licences provides complex and uncertain rules, rendering an unreliable employment of compulsory licensing. It is desirable that further recommendations are given on which generic producing companies should be awarded compulsory licences and also on which premises. In reality, the debate about compulsory licensing is part of a much wider structural problem in development policy. The solution to the inaccessibility problem requires a mix of courses of action with a functioning compulsory licensing system included. However, disagreements such as how necessary funding should be divided equitably between developed countries could protract the reaching of a pragmatic solution.

This dissertation is the first study in Lithuania to analyse Lithuanian trust of property law. Up to now, no one in legal studies has made any complex academic attempt to examine the genesis of property trust law, to discuss the characteristics of subjects and objects of this property trust law or to identify the most commonly occurring problems. There has been neither any thorough academic study concerning the sub-institutions of property trust law, i.e. the right to hold public property or private property in trust. The aim of the research is to comprehensively and systematically analyse, using foreign examples for comparison, the Lithuanian property trust law model, studying the aforementioned property law both as a coherent institution and as an amalgamation of two legal institutions intended for realisation of public and private ownership respectively. The dissertation also aims to reveal certain theoretical and practical issues and deficiencies in the regulation of property trust law in Lithuania, suggesting ways of filling gaps in Lithuanian law on both public and private property trust cases. / Ši disertacija yra pirmasis tyrimas Lietuvoje, analizuojantis Lietuvos turto patikėjimo teisę. Lietuvos teisės moksle iki šiol nebuvo nei vieno kompleksinio mokslinio bandymo, tirti turto patikėjimo teisės prigimtį, aptarti šios daiktinės teisės objektus, subjektų ypatumus, įvardinti dažniausiai pasitaikančias problemas. Nėra išsamių mokslinių tyrimų ir dėl turto patikėjimo teisės atskirų subinstitutų, t. y. dėl viešojo bei privataus turto patikėjimo teisės. Šio tyrimo tikslas yra išsamiai ir sistemiškai, remiantis užsienio teisės patirtimi, išanalizuoti Lietuvos turto patikėjimo teisės modelį, tiriant minėtą daiktinę tiek kaip vientisą institutą, tiek kaip dviejų teisinių institutų, skirtų viešosios bei privačios nuosavybės įgyvendinimui, samplaiką, atskleidžiant teorines bei praktines turto patikėjimo teisės reglamentavimo Lietuvoje problemas ir trūkumus, pasiūlant teisinio reglamentavimo spragų užpildymo būdus tiek viešojo, tiek privataus turto patikėjimo teisės atvejams.

This essay investigates the integral linkages between Gothic spaces and Gothic masculinities in three texts: Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto (1764), Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice (1813), and Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights (1847). At the core of this examination is architecture, or more specifically, the physical constructions and built environments that comprise a man’s property. I explore how a man uses his property to construct, legitimize, and perform his identity. In the Female Gothic, the home is a place of anxiety for women, where patriarchal dominance and violence reign to constrain female agency. I argue that the home is also an anxiety-ridden space for men, who are similarly tyrannized by a force they have limited power to fight against: legality. The issue of legally legitimized property ownership as a means of defining masculine selfhood in these texts lead men to extreme, and arguably unnatural, resorts to cling to their coveted status as autonomous property holders and virile men. In short, I aim to define a specifically Gothic masculinity. Yet, by using Pride and Prejudice, I will argue that this Gothic masculinity is not limited to Gothic texts.

Enligt grundregeln i 1:5 2 st. 1 p. varumärkeslagen (2010:1877) (VML) är varukännetecken som endast består av tecken eller benämningar som visar en varas eller tjänsts geografiska ursprung inte särskiljande och uppfyller därmed inte kraven för att kunna varumärkesregistreras. Ett varumärke får heller inte registreras om det är ägnat att vilseleda allmänheten i fråga om varans eller tjänstens geografiska ursprung, 2:7 1 st. VML. Dessa två hindrande faktorer har genomsyrat den länge strikta bedömningen av geografiska namns särskiljningsförmåga som genom praxis de senaste åren lättats upp. Det råder dock alltjämt osäkerhet för i vilka fall ett varumärke innehållande ett geografiskt namn uppfyller kraven för registrering.  Varumärkesrätten har under de senaste åren genomgått en stor förändring. Tidigare krävdes starka bevis på flerårig inarbetning för att kunna erhålla ensamrätt till varumärke innehållande geografiska namn alternativt att känneteckensinnehavaren använde sig av namn på exempelvis berg eller floder som knappast kunde utgöra ett geografiskt ursprung för en vara eller tjänst. Det starka frihållningsbehovet med tanken att geografiska namn ska kunna användas fritt av alla har dragits tillbaka något, till förmån för möjligheten att registrera varumärken och därmed erhålla ensamrätt till vissa beteckningar. Den ensamrätt som erhålls vid registrering av ett beskrivande ord såsom ett geografiskt namn är dock begränsad, eftersom vissa beskrivande begrepp såsom geografiska namn ska kunna brukas av alla. Konflikten mellan varumärkesintrång och användande av delar av annans varumärke i enlighet med god affärssed är därför något svårdefinierad. Från att i princip endast vara möjligt att få registrering genom inarbetning eller vid användning av mycket okända geografiska namn eller osannolika ursprungsangivelser fäster man idag stor vikt vid bedömningen av om det finns ett samband mellan varumärkets berörda varor eller tjänster och den geografiska platsen. Det görs också en helhetsbedömning för att avgöra märkets särskiljningsförmåga.

Licensing agreements are commonly used when, for instance, exploiting new areas or countries. Trade mark licences are one such example. A trade mark licence gives the proprietor the opportunity to keep its exclusive rights at the same time as another party uses the trade mark in commercial purposes. When licensing an EUTM to a third party, it is possible to include quality control clauses in the agreement in order for the licensor to control that the licensee uses the trade mark correctly. The possibility to include quality control implies that there is no such obligation within EU trade mark law. Yet, in the US, quality control is not only a possibility but also an obligation in order to keep the trade mark registered. Therefore, it is of interest to examine European trade mark law in relation to quality control in licensing. The American view of quality control is examined for illustrative purposes. Within the EU, the essential function of an EUTM means the ability to identify the origin. In addition, one single undertaking is responsible for the quality that is needed for the trade mark to fulfil its essential role in the system of undistorted system. Quality is seen as an economic function of the trade mark and therefore it should not be an obligation to include quality control in trade mark licences. The proprietor should bear the responsibility him- or herself when not including quality control. As a contrast, in the US, the consumers must be protected from deception and therefore it is a requirement for the proprietor to control and maintain the quality by including quality control in trade mark licences. If a trade mark licence does not include quality controls, the licence is considered invalid and the trade mark is considered abandoned. Furthermore, a law and economics perspective is included in the thesis and specifically the theory of TCE and the belonging terms or bounded rationality, opportunism, uncertainty and trust. While the EU seems to value trust more when settling licence agreements, the US seems to value opportunism and uncertainty more due to de fact that consumers must be protected from the proprietors. Since quality control within trade mark licensing appears to lock the proprietor into a situation where it is difficult to differentiate and change the direction of the trade mark, it should not be an obligation to include quality controls in trade mark licences. It should be a privilege for the proprietor to decide on whether to use or not and bear the consequences of that choice.

abstract: My Critical Yoga Studies investigation maps from the early 20th century to present day how yoga has become white through U.S. law and cultural productions, and has enhanced white privilege at the expense of Indian and people of color bodies. I position Critical Yoga Studies at the intersection of Yoga Studies, Critical Race Theory, Indigenous Studies, Mobilities Studies, and transnational American Studies. Scholars have linked uneven development and racial displacement (Soja, 1989; Harvey, 2006; Gilmore, 2007). How does racist displacement appear in historic and current contexts of development in yoga? In my dissertation, I use yoga mobilities to explain ongoing movements of Indigenous knowledge and wealth from former colonies, and contemporary “Indian” bodies, into the white, U.S. settler nation-state, economy, culture, and body. The mobilities trope provides rich conceptual ground for yoga study, because commodified yoga anchors in corporal movement, sets billions of dollars of global wealth in motion, shapes culture, and fuels complex legal and nation building maneuvers by the U.S. settler state and post-colonial India. Emerging discussions of commodified yoga typically do not consider race and colonialism. I fill these gaps with critical race and Indigenous Studies investigations of yoga mobilities in contested territories, triangulating data through three research sites: (1) U.S. Copyright law (1937-2015): I chart a 14,000% rise in U.S. yoga copyrights over a century of white hoarding through archival study in Copyright Public Records Reading Room, Library of Congress; (2) U.S. popular culture/music (1941-1967): I analyze twentieth-century popular song to illustrate how racist tropes of the Indian yogi joined yoga’s entry into U.S. popular culture, with material consequences; (3) Kerala, India, branded as India’s wellness tourism destination (2018): I engage participant-observation and interviews with workers in yoga tourism hubs to document patterns of racialized, uneven access to yoga. I find legal regimes facilitate extraction and displacement; cultural productions materially segregate and exclude; and yoga tourism is a node of racist capitalism that privileges white, settler mobility at the expense of Indian people, land, culture. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Justice Studies 2019