Denna studie syftade till att undersöka psykiskt välbefinnande bland statligt anställda män och kvinnor med eller utan ledarskapsansvar. En enkät innehållande frågor om bakgrundsvariabler; kön, ledarskapsansvar samt upplevd ansträngning och belöning skickades ut till 210 anställda. Frågorna om ansträngning och belöning utgick från den så kallade ansträngning- och belöningsmodellen. Femtiotre respondenter, 27 män (51%) och 26 kvinnor (49%), besvarade enkäten. Resultatet visade att 76% (n=40) av respondenterna upplevde enpositiv obalans mellan ansträngning och belöning medan 24% (n=13) upplevde en negativ obalans. Upplevd ansträngning uppvisade en signifikant korrelation med upplevd belöning, rs = -0.458, p<0.05. Dock uppvisade varken kön eller anställningsposition en signifikant association med obalans mellan ansträngning och belöning. Kön: Chi2 (1, n=53) = 0.158, p>0.05. Anställningsposition: Chi2 (1, n=53) = 0.2, p>0.05. Det psykiska välbefinnandet kan påverkas negativt om en obalans mellan upplevelsen av ansträngning och belöning föreligger. På grund av låg sampelstorlek och begränsningar i statistisk styrka kan föreliggande studie inte dra några definitiva slutsatser om balansenmellan ansträngning och belöning samvarierar med kön och/eller anställningsposition i studiepopulationen. / The purpose of this study was to investigate psychological well-being amongst government employees consisting of men and women with or without staff responsibility. A survey, consisting of questions regarding background variables; gender, staff responsibility and experienced effort and reward, was distributed to 210 employees. The questions regarding effort and reward were based on the Effort and Reward Imbalance Model. Fifty-three respondents, 27 men (51%) and 26 women (49%), took part. Results showed that 76% (n=40) of the respondents experienced a positive imbalance between effort and reward while 24% (n=13) experienced a negative imbalance thereof. Experienced effort showed a significant correlation with experienced reward, rs = -0.458, p<0.05. Neither gender nor employment category, however, showed a significant association with effort and reward imbalance. Gender: Chi2 (1, n=53) = 0.158, p>0.05. Employment category: Chi2 (1, n=53) = 0.2, p>0.05. The psychological well-being can be affected negatively if an imbalance between effort and reward occurs. This study cannot draw any firm conclusions of a potential associationbetween gender and employment category within the study population due to low sample size and limitations in statistical power.

Idag finns det en stor konkurrens mellan butiker inom dagligvaruhandel, varav ledningen är i ett stort behov av sin arbetskraft. Medarbetarskap är ett begrepp som belyser medarbetarnas engagemang och ansvarstagande på arbetsplatsen. I dagsläget finns det en medvetenhet om att cheferna bör kunna påverka medarbetarskapet, däremot finns det inte några konkreta metoder eller verktyg för hur medarbetarskapet kan bli inverkat på. I samband med att det finns en vetskap om att icke-finansiella belöningar kan påverka anställdas beteende på arbetsplatsen, väcks intresset för om de här även kan ha en inverkan på medarbetarskapet. Studiens syfte är att redogöra kring förutsättningar som behövs för att uppnå ett gott medarbetarskap och att ta reda på ifall icke-finansiella belöningar kan inverka på medarbetarskapet. I den teoretiska referensramen beskrivs teorier om medarbetarskap och belöningar, däribland förklaras medarbetarskapshjulet och icke-finansiella belöningar. Datainsamlingen baseras på en kvalitativ metod, där sju butiksmedarbetare har intervjuats. Av studien framgick öppenhet och förtroende mellan medarbetarna vara faktorer som bidrog till ett gott medarbetarskap. Det framkom att ansvarsfördelning var en viktig aspekt för medarbetarna, både för skapandet av engagemang men också för att få medarbetarna att stanna kvar på arbetsplatsen. Därav kunde det konstateras att icke-finansiella belöningar i form av arbetsberikning och utveckling i form av varierade arbetsuppgifter kunde vara avgörande för medarbetarskapet. Olika former av erkännande och positiv återkoppling kunde användas för att skapa öppenhet och engagemang hos medarbetarna. Sociala aktiviteter kunde användas för att belöna medarbetarna och kunde konstateras inverka på medarbetarskapet i form av gemenskap. På grund av studiens begränsningar kan inga säkra slutsatser dras. Förslag till fortsatt forskning är exempelvis att studera medarbetarskapet utifrån butikernas storlek, studera medarbetarskapet utifrån chefernas perspektiv och studera medarbetarskapet i förhållande till lönsamheten. / Today, there is a great deal of competition between stores in the grocery trade, of which the management is in great need of its labor. Empowerment/employeeship is a concept that highlights employees' commitment and responsibility in the workplace. At present, there is an awareness that managers should be able to influence employeeship, however, there are no concrete methods or tools for how employeeships can be affected. In connection with the knowledge that non-financial rewards can affect employees' behavior in the workplace, it arouses interest in whether they can have an impact on employeeship. The purpose of the study is to report on the conditions needed to achieve good employeeship and to find out if non-financial rewards can affect employeeship. The theoretical frame of reference describes theories about employeeship and rewards, including explaining the ‘’employeeship wheel’’ and non-financial rewards. Data collection is based on a qualitative method, where seven store employees have been interviewed. The study showed that openness and trust between employees were factors that contributed to good employeeship. It emerged that responsibility was an important aspect for the employees, both for the creation of commitment but also for getting the employees to stay in the workplace. From this, it could be stated that non-financial rewards in the form of work enrichment and development in the form of varied tasks could be decisive for the employees. Various forms of recognition and positive feedback could be used to create openness and commitment among employees. Social activities could be used to reward employees and could be found to affect employeeship in the form of community. Due to the limitations of the study, no definite conclusions can be drawn. Suggestions for further research are, for example, to study the employeeship based on the size of the stores, study the employeeship from the managers' perspective and study the employeeship in relation to profitability.

Banksektorn har under de senaste decennierna blivit allt mer kunskapsintensiv och en förståelse för det skifte som sker för framtidens medarbetare blir allt mer essentiell. Strategiska förändringar medför krav på ledningen att tillvarata sina medarbetares intressen genom att bland annat skapa incitament för att bibehålla gamla och skapa nya konkurrensfördelar. Syftet med vår studie är att beskriva en pågående förändringsprocess för att skapa en förståelse för hur ett generationsskifte influerar en decentraliserad organisations omstrukturering av belöningssystem. Genom detta avser vi fylla ett kunskapsgap avseende hur organisationer hanterar processen kring och utformningen av belöningssystem.  Studiens metod har utgått från en kvalitativ fallstudie. Genom 6 intervjuer på ett utvalt fallföretag har empiri insamlats för att skapa en förståelse för hur en decentraliserad organisation hanterar ett förändringsarbete i praktiken samt hur det påverkar hur ett belöningssystem moderniseras. Respondenterna är noga utvalda bland anställda från både ledande befattningar och inom kontorsrörelsen för att möjliggöra en bred förståelse för organisationsstrukturen samt dess respektive insyn i det fortskridande arbetet. Utifrån resultatet av studien kan slutsatsen dras att fallföretagets förändringsarbete har präglats av en stark top-downstyrning. En bristande medarbetarinvolvering har påvisat brister i processen och paradoxer gentemot organisationens starkt decentraliserade kultur. Vidare visar studien på att belöningssystem vid bemötande av generationsskifte är ett effektivt instrument. Emellertid kan den önskade effekten av omstruktureringen bli kortvarig om organisationen inte vidtar ytterligare åtgärder. En komplettering av instrumentet kan hjälpa företaget att uppnå en attraktivare arbetsmiljö, för alla. / The banking sector has become increasingly knowledge-intensive in recent decades, and an understanding of the shift that is taking place for future employees is becoming increasingly essential. Strategic changes entail demands on management to safeguard the interests of its employees by, among other things, creating incentives to maintain old ones and create new competitive advantages. The purpose of this study is to explain an ongoing change process to create a deep understanding of how social progress affects a decentralized organization's modernization and restructuring of incentive programs. Through this, we intend to fill the current knowledge gap regarding how organizations should handle the change process and design of reward systems. The study has been based on a qualitative case study. Through 6 interviews at a selected case company, empirical data has been collected to create an understanding for how a decentralized organization handles change management in practice and how this affects the outcome of a restructured reward system. The respondents are carefully selected among employees from both management positions and within the business field to enable a broad understanding of the organization. The study has resulted in the conclusion that the company's change management has been characterized by strong top-down control. A lack of employee involvement has shown shortcomings in the change process and paradoxes towards the organization's highly decentralized culture. Furthermore, the study shows that reward systems as a tool in dealing with generational change are an effective instrument. However, the desired effect of the restructuring may be short-lived if the organization does not take further action. Complementing the instrument can help the company attain a more attractive work environment, for everyone.

While it is clear that most drugs of abuse act to increase extracellular dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the molecular mechanisms mediating this process vary depending on the molecular target each drug acts on. The rewarding properties of most drugs of abuse including cocaine, amphetamine, and heroin have been well established for some time; however, the molecular mechanisms by which ethanol acts to mediate reward have not been fully elucidated. In this thesis, I have examined the role of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), known molecular targets for nicotine addiction, in mediating the initial rewarding properties of alcohol. Using a mouse model of voluntary ethanol consumption called Drinking in the Dark (DID), in combination with nAChR pharmacology and mouse genetics, we have provided further evidence for the role of nAChRs in mediating the initial rewardingproperties of ethanol. Because of the vast number of possible functional nAChR subtypes present in the brain, I sought to investigate which subtype of nAChR may be responsible for ethanol reinforcement. To accomplish this, I used twocomplementary nAChR mouse models. The first is a knock-out line that does not express the α4 subunit (α4 KO) and the second is a knock-in line that expresses α4* nAChRs that are hypersensitive to agonist (Leu9′Ala). We have also shown, for the first time, that a specific nAChR subtype, those that contain the α4 subunit (α4*), mediate voluntary ethanol consumption and reward. Next, I examined the role of α4* nAChRs in modulating voluntary ethanol consumption after systemic administration of the FDA approved smoking cessation drug varenicline, a partial agonist of α4* nAChRs. We showed that varenicline and nicotine both reduced acute ethanol consumption in an α4* nAChR dependent mechanism. Taken together, our data indicate that activation of α4* nAChRs is necessary and sufficient for reduction of ethanol consumption and further supports the hypothesis that α4* nAChRs are molecular targets for alcohol cessation therapies.

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Notre capacité à anticiper les événements futurs sur base de notre expérience nous permet d'interagir adéquatement avec notre environnement. Depuis presque deux siècles, cette observation a constitué une question centrale pour deux traditions de recherche différentes, à savoir la théorie idéomotrice de l'action et la théorie de l'apprentissage par renforcement. Alors que la première s'est concentrée sur les effets sensoriels associés avec une action donnée, la seconde tend à considérer que le comportement peut uniquement être influencé par les récompenses et punitions potentielles. Cette thèse de doctorat vise à lier ces deux approches, sur la base du modèle prédictif de la perception. À cette fin, nous avons conduit une série de six expériences explorant différents aspects de la relation entre les prédictions sensorielles et les prédictions de récompense au moyen de méthode de mesure comportementales, de techniques d'électroencéphalographie (EEG) et d'oculométrie. Nos résultats indiquent que (1) les contenus sensoriels et émotionnels appartenant à des stimuli complexes sont évalués ensembles, que (2) les différences inter-individuelles influencent la manière dont nous formons des prédictions et que (3) la mesure de la taille des pupilles est un outil prometteur pour l'étude des prédictions sensorielles. / Our ability to anticipate future events based on prior knowledge about our environment is shaping the way we engage with it. For almost two centuries, this observation has been a central topic for two different research traditions, namely the ideomotor theory and the reinforcement learning literature. Whereas the former focussed is inquiries on the sensory effects associated with a given action, the latter considered that behaviour was only influenced by potential rewards or punishments. This dissertation constitutes an attempt to bridge these two approaches, based on the predictive model theory. For this purpose, we conducted six experiments exploring various aspects of the relationship between reward and sensory prediction using classical behavioural and EEG methods, but also pupil size measurements. Our results suggest that (1) sensory and emotional features of complex stimuli are processed together, that (2) inter-individual differences influence prediction mechanisms and (3) pupil size measurement is a useful tool for sensory prediction.

In the field of neuroscience, being in love and feeling romantically attached to a partner is described as a dynamic process. Romantic love may be viewed as a motivational system, changing throughout time and place, fluctuating on the interest and motivation of the individual. Early memories and attachment towards a caregiver, lay the foundation for later attachment behavior, also known as attachment styles. In this thesis, an exploratory approach is present. The thesis aims to introduce and describe the neural correlates of romantic love and romantic attachment. Brain regions concerned with reward, emotion and thought processing, such as the reward circuitry network of the brain and the limbic system, are being investigated. So are other brain areas involved in romantic love and romantic attachment. Research findings suggest that brain areas responsible for affection, emotional control, learning, memory and social judgment are all involved in the complex processes of being in love and feeling romantically attached. These findings are represented by the involvement of the frontal lobe, cerebral cortex, limbic system, orbitofrontal cortex, and hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), ventral tegmental area (VTA), caudate tail, including the reward pathways of the brain. Distribution and regulation of neurotransmitters such as; vasopressin, oxytocin, dopamine, corticosterone and serotonin are all present in the state of romantic  attachment and romantic love. Overlapping evidence confirms the involvement of the reward circuitry network, together with the limbic system as crucial in the formation and maintenance of a romantic relationship.

Arbetsförhållanden blev ett aktuellt ämne efter en nyhet kring det svenska modeföretaget NA-KD uppmärksammades i december 2020. Belöningssystem består bland annat av begreppen motivation och behov som kan uppnås genom att organisationer belönar sinaanställda med hjälp av belöningssystem och belöningar i form av exempelvis lön, förmåner och uppskattning. Den här uppsatsen grundar sig i att få en bättre förståelse på hur de anställda på svenska modeföretag upplever belöningssystem inom deras organisation idag och hur organisationer kan öka de anställdas prestationer med hjälp av belöningssystem. För att undersöka olika organisationers belöningssystem utifrån de anställdas synvinkelanalyseras begreppen behov och motivation med hjälp av en analysmodell uppbyggd på hur faktorerna kan leda till höjd prestation. Studien kommer bidra med en djupgående nyanserad bild av de anställdas upplevelser från åtta djupgående intervjuer med semistrukturerade utformningar. Slutsatsen som kan dras i studien är att de anställda på svenska modeföretag i dagsläget upplever brister i organisationens belöningssystem. Samtliga respondenter belyser behovet av ett mer utvecklat belöningssystem och tydligare riktlinjer kring belöningar inom organisationen. Studien visar att de anställda har olika individuella behov på arbetsplatsen och olika faktorer motiverar de anställda på arbetsplatsen. Belöningar delas ofta in i olika kategorier som Bratton and Gold (2012) presenterar som monetära, icke-monetära och psykosociala belöningar. Det är tydligt i det empiriska materialet att svenska modebranschen är en attraktivbransch vilket organisationerna utnyttjar då de är medvetna om hur eftertraktad arbetsplatsen är och jobbar mindre med monetära belöningar, utöver en grundlön. Istället fokuserar de mer på icke-monetära i form av förmåner som till exempel rabatt på organisationens produkter. Slutligen visar studiens resultat hur de anställda upplever de befintliga belöningssystem och belöningar inom deras organisation samt om uppfyllda individuella behov och motivation leder till höjd arbetsprestation. / This essay is in swedish. Working conditions became a current topic after news about the Swedish fashion company NA-KD received attention in December 2020. Reward systems includes motivation and needs that can be achieved by rewarding employees. The company can use an effective reward system and rewards such as salary, benefits and appreciation. This essay is based on gaining a better understanding into how employees in Swedish fashion companies experience reward systems within their organization today and how organizations can increase employees performance with the help of reward systems. To examine different organizations' reward systems from the point of view of employees, the concepts of need and motivation are analyzed with the help of an analysis model that is based on how the factors can lead to increased performance. The study will provide an in-depth, nuanced picture of employees experiences from eight in-depth interviews with a semi-structured design. The conclusion that can be drawn in the study is that the employees at Swedish fashion companies feel that today there are shortcomings in the organization's work with a reward system. All respondents highlight the need for a more developed reward system and clearer guidelines regarding rewards within the organization. The study shows that employees have different individual needs and that different factors motivate employees in the workplace. Rewards are often divided into different categories that Bratton and Gold (2012) present as monetary, non-monetary and psychosocial rewards. It is clear in the empirical material that the Swedish fashion industry is an attractive industry, which means that organizations take advantage of the fact that the workplace is popular by working less with monetary rewards, in addition to a basic salary. Instead, they focus more on non-monetary rewards in the form of benefits such as discounts on the organizations own products. Finally, the results of the study show how employees experience the existing reward systems and rewards within their organization and whether fulfilled individual needs and motivation lead to an increased work performance.

Results from 10 empirical studies and 1 review article are described and can be summarized as follows: Only moral emotions represent an evaluation of person's behavior, whereas non-moral emotion provide information about outcomes. Positive moral emotions (e.g. pride, respect) signal that a person's (self or other) behavior was right, whereas negative moral emotions (e.g., guilt, indignation) signal that a person's behavior was wrong. These evaluations and signals are elicited by judgments of ought, goal attainment and effort (see Heider, 1958). Some moral emotions (e.g., shame or admiration) are also elicited by judgments on a person's ability. A person's responsibility (Weiner, 1995, 2006) and the perceived morality of a person's behavior (i.e., with regard to rightness and wrongness) represent further cognitive antecedents of moral emotions. Some moral emotions (e.g., regret, sympathy) are also influenced by a person's empathy (see Paulus, 2009) towards others. There are specific moral emotions that are closely connected to help-giving (e.g., sympathy), whereas other moral emotions are more closely related to reward (e.g., admiration) or punishment (e.g., anger). With regard to the cognitive effort underlying emotions, moral emotions require more cognitive effort (i.e., longer reaction times) than non-moral emotions.:Danksagung Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 1 2 An Introduction to Moral Emotions: Summary of Published Articles 3 2.1 A First Empirical Analysis of Moral Emotions 3 2.1.1 Towards a Classification of Moral Emotions 4 2.1.2 Cognitive Antecedents of Moral Emotions 5 2.1.3 Empirical Data 7 2.1.3.1 Positive Moral Observer Emotions 7 2.1.3.2 Negative Moral Observer Emotions 8 2.1.3.3 Positive Moral Actor Emotions 9 2.1.3.4 Negative Moral Actor Emotions 9 2.1.4 Cluster Analyses of Moral Emotions 10 2.1.5 Conclusions 12 2. 2 Integrating Moral Emotions in the Context of Attributional Theories 13 2.2.1 Metaphorical Backgrounds of Moral Emotions 13 2.2.2 Moral Emotions as ‘Stop vs. Go - Signals\' 15 2.3 Open Questions 16 2.3.1 Distinguishing Moral from Non-Moral Emotions 16 2.3.2 Controllability 16 2.3.3 Ability as a Further Antecedent Condition Eliciting Moral Emotions 16 2.3.4 Behavioral Consequences of Moral Emotions 17 2.3.5 Personality 17 2.3.6 Cognitive Effort 18 3 On Distinguishing Moral from Non-Moral Emotions. 19 3.1. Abstract 19 3.2 Introduction and Theoretical Background 20 3.2.1 Identifying Moral Emotions: Cognitive Antecedents 21 3.2.1.1 Agency 21 3.2.1.2 Moral Standards 22 3.2.1.3 Effort 23 3.2.2 Moral vs. Non-Moral Emotions 24 3.2.2.1 Non-Moral Emotions 25 3.2.2.2 Emotions with Both Moral and Non-Moral Qualities 25 3.2.2.3 Discordant Emotions 26 3.2.4 Aims and Expectations 27 3.3 Study 1 28 3.3.1 Method 28 3.3.1.1 Participants 28 3.3.1.2 Experimental Design 29 3.3.1.3 Materials and Procedure 29 3.3.1.4 Data Analysis 30 3.3.2 Results 31 3.3.2.1 Positive Moral Observer Emotions 31 3.3.2.2 Positive Non-Moral Observer Emotions 32 3.3.2.3 Negative Moral Observer Emotions 35 3.3.2.4 Negative Non-Moral Observer Emotions 36 3.3.3 Discussion of Study 1 37 3.4 Study 2 41 3.4.1 Method 41 3.4.1.1 Participants 41 3.4.1.2 Experimental Design 42 3.4.1.3 Materials and Procedure 42 3.4.1.4 Data Analysis 42 3.4.2 Results 43 3.4.2.1 Positive Moral Actor Emotions 43 3.4.2.2 Positive Non-Moral Actor Emotions 43 3.4.2.3 Negative Moral Actor Emotions 44 3.4.2.4 Negative Non-Moral Actor Emotions 48 3.4.3 Discussion of Study 2 48 3.5 General Discussion 51 3.5.1 The Signal-Function of Moral Emotions 54 3.5.2 Limitations and Implications for Future Research 55 4 The Who and Whom of Help-Giving: An Attributional Model Integrating the Help-Giver and the Help-Recipient. 58 4.1. Abstract 58 4.2 Introduction and Theoretical Background 59 4.2.1 Responsibility, Moral Observer Emotions and Help-Giving 62 4.2.2 Responsibility, Moral Actor Emotions and Help-Giving 63 4.2.3 Responsibility and Deservingness …………………………………………...... 65 4.2.4 Personal Characteristics of the Help-Giver 65 4.2.5 Aims and Expectations 66 4.3 Method 67 4.3.1 Participants 67 4.3.2 Experimental Design 67 4.3.3 Materials and Procedure 68 4.3.4 Data Analysis 70 4.4 Results 71 4.4.1 Manipulation Checks 71 4.4.2 From Thinking to Feeling 72 4.4.3 From Thinking to Acting 72 4.4.4 From Feeling to Acting 73 4.4.5 Moral Emotions as Mediators between Thinking and Acting 74 4.4.5.1 Moral Actor Emotions 74 4.4.5.2 Moral Observer Emotions 76 4.4.6 Empathy and Help-Giving 77 4.4.7 A Comprehensive Model 78 4.5 Discussion 83 4.5.1 Responsibility and Feelings of the Moral Actor 83 4.5.2 Moral Actor Emotions and Help-Giving 83 4.5.3 Responsibility and Help-Giving 84 4.5.4 Responsibility of the Person in Need and Moral Observer Emotions 85 4.5.5 Moral Observer Emotions and Help-Giving 85 4.5.6 Moral Emotions as Mediators between Cognitions and Help-Giving 85 4.5.7 Stable Characteristics of the Moral Actor 87 4.5.8 A Comprehensive Model of Help-Giving 87 4.5.9 Recommendations for Future Research 89 5 Moral Emotions: Cognitive Basis and Behavioral Consequences. 91 5.1 Abstract 91 5.2 Introduction and Theoretical Background 92 5.2.1 Cognitive Antecedents of Moral Emotions 94 5.2.2 Behavioral Consequences of Moral Emotions 97 5.2.3 Combining Cognitive Antecedents and Behavioral Consequences 98 5.2.4 Aims and Expectations 100 5.3 Study 1 100 5.3.1 Method 101 5.3.1.1 Participants 101 5.3.1.2 Experimental Design 102 5.3.1.3 Materials and Procedure 102 5.3.1.4 Data Analysis 103 5.3.2 Results 103 5.3.2.1 Manipulation Checks 103 5.3.2.2 Eliciting Moral Cognitions and Moral Actor Emotions 104 5.3.2.3 Predicting Moral Actor Emotions from Cognitions: Attained Goals 109 5.3.2.4 Predicting Moral Actor Emotions from Cognitions: Non-Attained Goals 111 5.3.2.5 Predicting Moral Actor Emotions from Cognitions: Mediation Analyses. 113 5.3.3 Discussion of Study 1 116 5.3.3.1 Cognitive Antecedents as Elicitors of Moral Cognitions and Moral Actor Emotions 116 5.3.3.2 Moral Cognitions Eliciting Moral Actor Emotions. 119 5.4 Study 2 121 5.4.1. Method 123 5.4.1.1 Participants 123 5.4.1.2 Experimental Design 123 5.4.1.3 Materials and Procedure 124 5.4.1.4 Data Analysis 125 5.4.2 Results 125 5.4.2.1 Manipulation Checks 125 5.4.2.2 Eliciting Moral Cognitions, Moral Observer Emotions and Sanctioning Behavior 126 5.4.2.3 Predicting Moral Observer Emotions from Cognitions: Attained Goals 132 5.4.2.4 Predicting Moral Observer Emotions from Cognitions: Non-Attained Goals 134 5.4.2.5 Predicting Moral Observer Emotions from Cognitions: Mediation Analyses 135 5.4.2.6 Predicting Sanctioning Behavior from Cognitions: Attained Goals 138 5.4.2.7 Predicting Sanctioning Behavior from Cognitions Non-Attained Goals 139 5.4.2.8. Predicting Sanctioning Behavior from Moral Observer Emotions: Attained Goals 139 5.4.2.9 Predicting Sanctioning Behavior from Moral Observer Emotions: Non-Attained Goals 140 5.4.2.10 Predicting Sanctioning Behavior from Cognitions and Moral Observer Emotions: Mediation Analyses 141 5.4.2.11 Predicting Sanctioning Behavior from Cognitions and Emotions: a Comprehensive Cognition  Emotion  Action Model 144 5.4.3 Discussion of Study 2 146 5.4.3.1 Cognitive Antecedents as Elicitors of Moral Cognitions, Moral Observer Emotions, Reward and Punishment 146 5.4.3.2. Moral Cognitions Eliciting Moral Observer Emotions 150 5.4.3.3 Relationships between Moral Cognitions, Moral Observer Emotions, Reward and Punishment 151 5.5 General Discussion 155 5.5.1 Moral Cognitions 155 5.5.2 Moral Emotions 155 5.5.3 Sanctioning Behavior 157 5.5.4 Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research. 159 6 Moral vs. Non-moral Emotions: Further Differentiation Based on Cognitive Effort 160 6.1 Abstract 160 6.2 Introduction and Theoretical Background 161 6.2.1 The Cognitive Effort Underlying Moral vs. Non-Moral Emotions 162 6.2.2 Cognitive Effort and Balance Theory 163 6.2.3 Aims and Expectations 166 6. 3 Method 168 6.3.1 Participants 168 6.3.2 Experimental Design 168 6.3.3 Materials and Procedure 169 6.3.4 Data Analysis 170 6.4 Results 171 6.4.1 Frequency of Choice 171 6.4.1.1 Moral Cognitions 171 6.4.1.2 Positive Emotions 172 6.4.1.3 Negative Emotions 174 6.4.2 Reaction Times 175 6.4.2.1 Moral Cognitions 174 6.4.2.2 Moral and Non-Moral Emotions 176 6.5 Discussion 180 6.5.1 Shortcomings and Issues for Future Research 183 7 Summary and Future Prospects 185 7.1 A Classification of Moral and Non-Moral Emotions 185 7. 2 Moral Emotions and Subsequent Behaviors 189 7.3. Moral Emotions and Personality 190 7.4 Cognitive Effort and Moral Emotions 192 7.5 An Empirically Based Definition of Moral Emotions 194 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 195 8.1 Eine Klassifikation moralischer und nicht-moralischer Emotionen 195 8.2. Moralische Emotionen und nachfolgende Verhaltensweisen 200 8.3. Moralische Emotionen und Persönlichkeit 202 8.4 Kognitive Beanspruchung und moralische Emotionen 203 8.5 Eine empirisch fundierte Klassifikation moralischer Emotionen 205   Appendix A 207 Appendix B 208 Appendix C 209 Appendix D 210 Literaturverzeichnis 211 Tabellenverzeichnis 239 Abbildungsverzeichnis 240 Erklärung zur Selbstständigkeit LEBENSLAUF

Embedded real time applications are often subject to time and energy constraints. Real time applications are usually characterized by logically separable set of tasks with precedence constraints. The computational effort behind each of the task in the system is responsible for a physical functionality of the embedded system. In this work we mainly define theoretical models for relating the quality of the physical func- tionality to the computational load of the tasks and develop optimization problems to maximize the quality of the system subject to various constraints like time and energy. Specifically, the novelties in this work are three fold. This work deals with maximizing the final output quality of a set of precedence constrained tasks whose quality can be expressed with appropriate cost functions. We have developed heuristic scheduling algorithms for maximizing the quality of final output of embedded applications. This work also dealswith the fact that the quality of output of a task in the system has noticeable effect on quality of output of the other dependent tasks in the system. Finally run time characteristics of the tasks are also modeled by simulating a distribution of run times for the tasks, which provides for averaged quality of output for the system rather than un-sampled quality based on arbitrary run times. Many real-time tasks fall into the IRIS (Increased Reward with Increased Service) category. Such tasks can be prematurely terminated at the cost of poorer quality output. In this work, we study the scheduling of IRIS tasks on multiprocessors. IRIS tasks may be dependent, with one task feeding other tasks in a Task Precedence Graph (TPG). Task output quality depends on the quality of the input data as well as on the execution time that is allowed. We study the allocation/scheduling of IRIS TPGs on multiprocessors to maximize output quality. The heuristics developed can effectively reclaim resources when tasks finish earlier than their estimated worst-case execution time. Dynamic voltage scaling is used to manage energy consumption and keep it within specified bounds.