The escalation of poverty simultaneously with the decline of small-scale agriculture in the rural areas of the Eastern Cape in particular, raises serious concerns within the government circles in South Africa and among researchers. Of the nine provinces of South Africa, the rate of poverty in the Eastern Cape is a pathetic one and is the largest contributor to poverty statistics in the whole of South Africa. Machete (2004) stresses that high levels of poverty are visible in the rural areas and the large proportions of the people who are poor in South Africa are found in the rural areas. It is widely accepted that small-scale agriculture plays a vital role in and contributes substantially to socio-economic life of people living in the rural areas and is one of the strategies most suited to combat poverty for the majority of the people in the rural areas. This study explored the challenges that limit the effective use of land for subsistence agriculture as a strategy for poverty alleviation at Mpongo and Twecwana villages in Tsholomnqa. The study adopted a qualitative approach in order to get in-depth understanding of the challenges as experienced by the participants. The sample comprised of fifteen (15) subsistence farmers and three (3) extension officers from the department of agriculture. The data was collected from the participants through the focus group technique with an interview schedule containing open ended questions. The findings of the study indicated that the communities lack capital such as money, machinery, labour and other resources needed to pursue agricultural livelihoods. The findings also showed that agricultural infrastructure such as dams, rivers, fencing have deteriorated. Machete (2004, p.8) concurring with Pote (2008) says “inadequate physical infrastructure in the rural areas, particular in the former homeland areas remains a major obstacle to smallholder agricultural growth in South Africa”. In the two villages the situation is worsened by a total lack of irrigation scheme development. These communities rely entirely on seasonal and natural rainfall for their crops to be cultivated and grown. It was also found that the introduction of state grants contributed for the rural communities to do way with their traditional socio-economic agricultural livelihoods. The end results were for food production from gardens and communal fields come to a total collapse in many communities in the rural areas. The findings also show that youth is less interested to participate and pursue agricultural based activities in the rural areas. Williams et al (2008) claim that young people are unwilling to pursue agricultural studies as career of choice because of negative image attached to it. Many youths regard agriculture as an activity which belongs to adult and ordinary people. Drought was also cited as the worst natural disaster that has threatened the already disadvantaged small scale agriculture in these rural areas. These deficiencies have rendered subsistence agricultural centred activities to a total collapse.

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This study’s main goal was to evaluate Bacillus subtilis inoculation and mine water irrigation effect on germination, growth, nodulation, physiology and shoot/grain quality of cowpea genotypes exposed to extreme climatic conditions (elevated temperatures). The first experiment evaluated the interactive effect of Bacillus subtilis (BD233) inoculation and elevated temperature on germination indices and plumule lengths of three genotypes (Asetanapa, Soronko and Nyira) of cowpea. The results showed that interaction between B. subtilis (BD233) and temperature significantly (p<0.05) influenced the germination indices (germination percentage (G%), germination index (GI) and germination rate index (GRI)) and plumule length of cowpea seedlings and genotype responses were significantly different. At elevated temperature (35oC), inoculation with B. subtilis (BD233) enhanced seed germination and growth of cowpea. The second experiment evaluated the effect of temperature on growth and nutritional content of cowpea incubated for seven days in a growth chamber. The results showed that when cowpea genotype, Soronko, was incubated at different temperature regimes, the whole plant biomass, shoot carbon and crude protein contents were significantly affected with temperature increases at all three stages of the plants’ life cycle. The results suggest that the pre-flowering (40 DAP) and flowering (90 DAP) stages of cowpea compared to post-flowering (123 DAP) are more susceptible to elevated temperatures (30-35oC). The third experiment evaluated Bacillus subtilis inoculation and mine water irrigation effect on growth, nodulation, physiology and nutritional content of cowpea under glasshouse conditions. The results revealed that the interaction of B. subtilis (BD233) inoculation and mine water (75% AMD) irrigation was significant for the growth, nodulation, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll contents and shoot/grain nutritional quality of cowpea genotypes. In comparison with control, generally, B. subtilis inoculation enhanced the growth, nodulation and yield of all tested cowpea genotypes and irrigation with mine water significantly influenced the mineral contents in both shoot and grain of cowpea. Taken together, findings in this study have implications for cultivation of cowpea, an important candidate for food/nutrition security in Africa, under future climate change scenarios. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Sciences)

Food system is complex and encompasses stakeholders from local, regional, and global level. The activities and outcomes of the food system are associated with environmental, economic, and social impacts. Due to the growing population, and urbanization, along with the fact that global food system contributes up to 30% of anthropogenic GHG emission, one of the main contributors to climate change, a sustainable food system that could meet the food demand in the urban areas is in need. Therefore, high-tech urban agriculture (HTUA) that uses advanced technologies and enables food production in a controlled environment is seen as a promising solution, which remains niche in Sweden. This study adopted the sustainable food system approach and used the theory of multi-level perspective (MLP) on sustainability transitions to explore this technology-driven transition and identify the challenges and opportunities in developing HTUA in Sweden. Through the analysis of five Swedish policy documents and interviews with four HTUA initiatives in Stockholm, three main aspects are identified: 1) external context; 2) policy environment; and 3) communication and influence, which are independent but also interconnected. According to the findings, the global environment and Swedish context, such as climatic condition and Swedish consumption, provide HTUA an opportunity to develop. The findings also suggest that though the characteristics of HTUA initiatives and the priorities within the Swedish policy environment have overlapping traits, the policies are not effectively translated into practice and thus making it challengeable to develop HTUA in the long run. Implementing more strict restrictions and regulations on the external price, providing an easier access to urban space, simplifying the procedure for the financial support, raising public awareness towards HTUA, and bridging the knowledge gap among all stakeholders through collaborations and partnerships are suggested to reduce the risk of initiating HTUA. However, further research is still required to understand the potential of HTUA in the transformation towards a sustainable food system.

A dissertation of limited scope submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulmment of the requirements for the course-work degree of Masters of Recreation and Tourism in the Centre for Recreation and Tourism at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2003. / Dukuduku forest is one of the largest remaining stretches of coastal sand forest in South Africa More than 10 000 illegal squatters have invaded the forest and chopped down the trees and undergrowth in the area. This has created many problems such as extinction of some plant and animal species. The cleared areas have become breeding grounds for mosquitoes, which in turn scares off the tourists from the area. The invasion of this indigenous forest has led to it being excluded from being part of St Lucia Wetland Park, which has recently acquired the status of being a World heritage site. Pursuant to problems associated with St Lucia Wetland Park and the neighbouring natural forest, the objectives of this study include the following: • To discover the impact of subsistence farming and informal settlement on the Dukuduku Forest as a tourist resource. • To identify activities the Dukuduku Forest dwellers are engaged in which may be a direct cause of the destruction of the natural forest S • To reveal forest management options that may be taken to save the natural forest from devastation. • To distinguish tourism related benefits, which are associated with the Dukuduku Forest reserve. • To indicate the extent to which the local community participates in the management of the forest The collection of data was achieved through the survey questionnaires and field observations in the study area. Residents of the forest and principals of five schools in the forest were interviewed. Person-to-person interviews were conducted with the resettlement project manager. The study revealed that more and more people still invade the forest. They include fugitives who have committed a number of illegal acts, refugees from violence-ridden areas, immigrants from Mozambique and many unemployed and homeless folk. Attempts to resettle the Dukuduku forest dwellers have so far not been a success, but the government is still trying to resolve the issue. Loosing Dukuduku natural forest will be a huge blow to South African tourism since the forest is a natural resource for leisure and an aesthetic potential to attract tourists.

Världsbefolkningens tillväxt sätter stort tryck på livsmedelsproduktionen. För att bemöta den ökande efterfrågan på mat förbrukas stora mängder handelsgödsel i syftet att stimulera tillväxten hos grödor och öka jordbruksmarkens bördighet. Överkonsumtion av gödsel inom jordbruket har bidragit till växtnäringsläckage och eutrofieringen av Östersjön. En konsekvens av övergödning är ökad tillväxt av sjögräs och tång. Särskilt stora mängder av ilandflutet sjögräs och tång (även kallat släke) ansamlas på Gotlands stränder. Dessa makroalger är rika på mineraler och näringsämnen, som dessutom är viktiga för växternas ämnesomsättning och tillväxt. Genom att samla in och använda släke som gödsel kan näringen som algerna tagit upp återföras till marken och därmed återvinnas. För att öka intresset för släke som biogödsel är det därför viktigt att alternativet är ekonomiskt lönsamt och konkurrenskraftigt på gödselmarknaden.  Denna studie syftar till att undersöka vilka förutsättningar biogödningsmedel från släke har att bli ett ekonomiskt hållbart alternativ till handelsgödsel. Med en litteraturstudie som utgångspunkt är målet att skapa en modell för att jämföra priset på släkegödsel och handelsgödsel. Resultatet visade att handelsgödsel, för tillfället, betraktas som en mer attraktiv marknadsvara än släkegödsel. Trots vissa begränsningar bedöms släkegödsel ha potential att konkurrera med handelsgödsel och förhoppningsvis stärka sin position på gödselmarknaden i framtiden. Exempelvis genom att blanda in släke med konstgödsel för att minska näringstillförseln till havet och återvinna näringen som redan finns i jordbrukskretsloppet. / Rapid world population growth has caused excessive pressure on the food industry. To meet the increasing demand for food a substantial amount of commercial fertilizer is used to stimulate the growth of crops and boost the fertility of agricultural lands. Overconsumption of fertilizers has contributed to nutrient leakage and eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. Consequently, the phenomenon has led to increased growth of seaweed and seagrass, particularly in the coastal areas of Gotland where it accumulates after being washed up from the sea (also called beach-wrack). These macroalgae are rich in minerals and nutrients, which are important for the plants' metabolism and growth. By collecting and using beach-wrack as a biofertilizer, the nutrient uptake by algae can therefore be returned to the soil and thus recycled. To enable the use of biofertilizers from beach-wrack within agricultural practices, it needs to be economically profitable and competitive on the market of commercial fertilizers.  This study aims to investigate the preconditions for biofertilizers from beach-wrack to become an economically sustainable alternative to commercial fertilizers. With a literature study as a basis, the goal is to create a model for comparing the price of beach-wrack fertilizer and commercial fertilizers. The result showed that commercial fertilizers are considered to be more attractive on the fertilizer market than beach-wrack fertilizer. Despite the limitations of algae-biofertilizer, beach-wrack could have the potential to compete with commercial fertilizer alternatives in the future and hopefully strengthen its position on the fertilizer market. For instance, by mixing the beach-wrack with mineral fertilizers, thus reducing the supply of nutrients to the sea, and recycling the nutrients that are already present in the agricultural cycle.

Agriculture is facing many challenges, such as decreased biodiversity, soil erosion, water scarcity, and social inequality, because of industrial farming and its focus on high yields at the expense of sustainability. This also includes Thailand and the province of Ratchaburi. There are, however, some farmers that have pursued sustainable agriculture in the region. The purpose of the study is therefore to investigate how these sustainable farming practices can contribute to increased prosperity, self-sufficiency, and an improved environment in Ratchaburi. Specifically, the study examines the strengths and weaknesses of sustainable agriculture in the region, as well as the opportunities and threats they face. Qualitative interviews were completed with farmers from three sustainable farms in the region. The results were analyzed with the help of PESTLE to describe the macro-factors that influence the agricultural environment .Thereafter a SWOT analysis was performed to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each farm as well as relate these to the opportunities and threats identified in the PESTLE analysis. The study found that the key strengths were multi-crop cultivation, product development, self-sufficiency and broad knowledge combined with collaboration. Several weaknesses arose from small-scale operations, which also made it challenging to make use of the opportunity of niche markets. A major challenge is the relatively low demand for sustainable products. Future studies could further examine how organic certifications can impact the demand for sustainable products, as well as how small sustainable farms can effectively reach niche markets. / Jordbruk står inför många utmaningar, så som minskad biologisk mångfald, erodering, vattenbrist och social ojämlikhet, till följd av det industriella jordbruket och dess fokus på stora skördar på bekostnad av hållbarhet. Detta innefattar även Thailand och provinsen Ratchaburi. Däremot finns det en del bönder som trotsat de konventionella metoderna och bedriver hållbara jordbruk, främst genom diversifierade grödor och skapandet av naturliga ekosystem. Syftet med studien är därför att undersöka hur dessa hållbara jordbruk kan bidra till ökat välstånd, självförsörjning och förbättrad miljö i Ratchaburi. Mer specifikt undersöker studien vilka styrkor och svagheter hållbara jordbruk i regionen har, samt vilka möjligheter och hot de ställs inför. Metoden som användes var kvalitativa intervjuer med bönder från tre hållbara jordbruk i regionen för att sedan skapa en gemensam PESTEL-analys för gårdarna samt en SWOT analys för respektive gård. PESTEL-analysen beskriver och analyserar vilka makro-faktorer som påverkar deras omgivning, medan SWOT analysen lyfter fram styrkorna och svagheterna för gårdarna och analyserar deras möjligheter och hot, dels utifrån deras svar, dels utifrån PESTEL-analysen. Studien fann att de viktigaste styrkorna var bred kunskap, självförsörjning, samverkan, produktframtagning och en mångfald av grödor och produkter. De övergripande svagheterna var dålig tillgång till marknader samt småskalighet. Möjligheterna var att nå nya marknader, i samband med en ökad medvetenhet och efterfrågan på hållbara produkter, samt utnyttjande av subventioner och ökad användning av e-handel. De främsta hoten var konkurrens med andra jordbruk och stora industrier, kapital- och teknologiska begränsningar. Framtida studier kan vidare undersöka hur ekologiska certifieringar kan påverka efterfrågan på hållbara produkter, samt hur hållbara jordbruk kan nå till nischade marknader för deras produkter på bästa sätt.

[pt] Esta tese é composta por 3 capítulos em Economia do Desenvolvimento, todos eles relacionados com o papel das políticas públicas, quer na promoção de políticas sustentáveis para a preservação de recursos naturais no longo prazo, quer na prestação de serviços públicos eficientes ou no questionamento do accountability das atuais instituições democráticas. O primeiro artigo mostra que, ao adotar uma tecnologia que incorpora práticas agrícolas sustentáveis, os agricultores têm efeitos dinâmicos positivos na produtividade e na resiliência climática. Apresentamos evidências do mecanismo dessas externalidades: melhorias no solo. O segundo artigo apresenta os resultados de um RCT desenvolvido para testar se uma intervenção gerencial em centros de saúde em Moçambique pode reduzir falhas de coordenação, aumentando a retenção de pacientes com HIV ao tratamento e a qualidade do atendimento prestado. Por fim, o terceiro analisa os grandes protestos de rua ocorridos no Brasil em 2013 para analisar se os protestos podem funcionar como mecanismo de accountability de políticos eleitos. Usando dados históricos do Twitter, criamos uma medida da intensidade dos protestos e quão ruidosas foram as demandas dos manifestantes em cada município. Apresentamos evidências de que os protestos podem funcionar como mecanismo de responsabilização apenas se as mensagens enviadas pelos manifestantes são nítidas e claras e os políticos enfrentam incentivos à reeleição. / [en] This thesis is composed of 3 chapters in development economics, all of which relate to the role of public policy either in promoting sustainable policies for long-run maintenance of natural resources, or meeting citizens needs through efficient service delivery or questioning the accountability of current political institutions. The first paper shows that, by adopting a technology that incorporates sustainable agricultural practices, farmers have positive dynamic effects on productivity and climate resilience.We provide evidence of the mechanism of these dynamic effects: soil improvement. The second one presents the results of an RCT designed to test whether a managerial intervention in health centers in Mozambique can reduce coordination failures, increasing HIV patients retention in care and quality of care provided. Finally, the third one look at the large street protests that took place in Brazil in 2013 to analyze whether protests can work as an accountability mechanism for elected politicians. Using Twitter historical data, we create a measure of protest intensity and how noisy protesters demands were in each municipality. We present evidence that protests may work as accountability mechanism only if messages sent by protesters are sharp and clear, and politicians face reelection incentives.

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