This thesis examines a problem regarding the separation of post-mortem persons into ‘heaven’ and ‘hell’, taken to mean two eternal and inescapable eschatological destinations for human persons: the former being an ultimate satisfaction of sorts, the latter being characterized by eternal misery. The question that is contemplated is whether the saved in heaven can experience their heavenly existence as genuinely blissful, whilst at the same time being aware of the sufferings of the lost – especially if the lost consists of one or more persons whom they love dearly, such as a close family member. Arguments given by Christian philosophers Thomas Talbott and William Lane Craig are analysed in order to establish whether the problem, referred to as ‘the problem of eschatological separation’, gives us reason to abandon the idea of an eternal hell and opt, instead, to endorse the doctrine of universal reconciliation. Talbott makes the claim that an eternal hell, considering the problem of eschatological separation, is a logical impossibility. Craig, on the other hand, puts forth two objections that he believes proves that hell is a logical possibility. Both of Craig’s objections are shown to be unsound, and the problem of eschatological separation is thus considered to be sufficient reason for rejecting the possibility of an eternal hell.

Ce mémoire examine le thème des causes finales dans l’Éthique (1677) de Spinoza. À l’aide d’une classification quadripartite des types de discours sur les causes finales, il identifie d’abord en le finalisme théologico-métaphysique la cible philosophique visée par la critique de l’Appendice de la première partie de cet opus magnum. Radicalisant le postulat épistémologique cartésien voulant que la volonté divine ne puisse servir de principe explicatif aux phénomènes naturels, Spinoza rejette complètement l’idée selon laquelle le rapport entre Dieu et sa création puisse être conçu sous le mode de la cause finale et élabore, à l’ombre de cette critique, une conception de la causalité divine selon laquelle la production du monde est le résultat nécessaire de l’essence de Dieu. Ensuite, notre mémoire se penche sur le concept de conatus qui se situe à l’intersection de la philosophie naturelle et de l’ontologie. Nous explorons, selon trois hypothèses convoquées tour à tour pour comprendre son fonctionnement, la possibilité de dynamiques téléologiques dans la nature malgré la critique de l’Appendice. Finalement, la dernière partie de notre mémoire tente de faire la lumière sur l’articulation entre, d’une part, la philosophie naturelle et l’ontologie de Spinoza et, d’autre part, sa philosophie pratique. Nous démontrons ainsi l’utilité de faire appel aux causes finales pour expliquer sa conception de la psychologie humaine et pour rendre compte de la dernière station de son éthique, à savoir la beatitudo. De cette façon, nous entendons reconstruire le rapport qu’entretiennent les différents volets de la philosophie spinoziste avec la question des causes finales. / This paper examines the theme of the final causes in Spinoza’s Ethics (1677). Using a quadripartite classification of the types of discourse on the final causes, we define theological-metaphysical finalism as the main philosophical target of Spinoza’s critics. Radicalizing the epistemological Cartesian postulate according to which the divine will cannot serve as an explanatory principle for natural phenomena, Spinoza completely rejects the idea that the relationship between God and his creation can be conceived under the mode of the final cause and elaborates, in the shadow of this criticism, a conception of divine causality that presents the production of the world as a necessary result of God’s essence. Then, we briefly look at the concept of conatus, which is at the intersection of natural philosophy and ontology. We explore, according to three hypotheses, the possibility of teleological dynamics in nature. Finaly, the last part of our thesis tries to shed light on the articulation between, on the one hand, Spinoza’s natural philosophy and ontology and, on the other hand, his practical philosophy. We thus demonstrate the usefulness of using the final causes to explain human psychology and to account for the last station of the spinozist ethics, the beatitudo.

[pt] A presente pesquisa tem por objetivo analisar a espiritualidade, ou espiritualidades, ofertadas dentro do protestantismo brasileiro. Haja vista o crescimento quantitativo significativo deste segmento do campo religioso brasileiro nas últimas décadas, buscou-se observar se tal crescimento vem sendo acompanhado de melhorias nas estruturas sociais do país. Ao se indagar sobre a capacidade da mensagem das igrejas protestantes de promover transformação social, foi apresentada uma proposta de espiritualidade imanente, a partir da análise de conteúdo bibliográfico sobre o assunto, como contribuição ao cenário atual do protestantismo. Nesta pesquisa analítica, para que se pudesse desenvolver o tema, partiu-se da definição da utilização de protestantismo, a partir de tipologias, e se seguiu com a análise do movimento, de maneira geral, desde suas diferentes origens e seus distintos desdobramentos atuais. Assim, chegou-se ao entendimento de que as espiritualidades vigentes no protestantismo propõem a valorização da vida eterna, mas em oposição a vida terrena. Entretanto, em sentido oposto, foi apresentada a espiritualidade encarnada. Destacou-se, então, a polissemia do termo espiritualidade, mas também seu potencial de se comunicar com o tempo hodierno. Percebe-se que ao propor a espiritualidade de seguimento de Jesus Cristo, aqui encarnada, dualismos precisam deixar de existir, o significado de missão deve ser alargado, o eclesiocentrismo descontinuado e a interpretação e mensagens bíblicas devem ser atualizadas. Cada um desses temas foi tratado e observado a sua situação em realidade brasileira. Como consequência, chega-se à proposta contributiva da pesquisa, onde a realidade protestante brasileira é colocada diante da espiritualidade encarnada, e os frutos desse encontro são igualmente apresentados, fragilidades são expostas e caminhos são propostos. / [en] This research seeks to analyze the spirituality, or spiritualities, which are offered within Brazilian Protestantism. Given the significant quantitative growth of this segment of the Brazilian religious field in recent decades, we sought to observe whether such growth has been accompanied by improvements in the country s social structures. When questioning the capacity of the message of Protestant churches to promote social transformation, a proposal of immanent spirituality was presented, based on the analysis of bibliographic content on the subject, as a contribution to the current scenario of Protestantism. In this analytical research, to develop the theme, we started from the definition of the use of Protestantism, based on typologies, and followed with the analysis of the movement, in general, from its different origins and its distinct current developments. Thus, it understood that the spiritualities in force in Protestantism propose the valorization of eternal life, but in opposition to earthly life. However, in the opposite sense, embodied spirituality is presented. Thus, the polysemy of the term was highlighted, but also its potential to communicate with today s time. We understand by proposing the spirituality of following Jesus Christ, embodied here, dualisms need to cease to exist, the meaning of mission must be broadened, ecclesiocentrism discontinued and biblical interpretation and messages must be updated. And each one of the themes was treated and observed its situation in the Brazilian reality. As a result, we arrive at the contribution of the research proposal, where the Brazilian Protestant reality is placed in front of embodied spirituality, the fruits of this meeting are equally presented, weaknesses are exposed, and paths are proposed.

Au lendemain de la Première Guerre mondiale, un élan de créativité sans précédent métamorphose la conception de l’identité moderne. Les moyens d’expression que sont la philosophie, la psychologie et la littérature participent au développement de questions sur le sens de l’Être et de l’existence. À l’exemple de la position mise de l’avant par l’écrivain Hermann Hesse (1877-1962), ce mémoire tente de définir la question du sens de la vie en tant que problématique existentielle en Allemagne au début du XXe siècle. C’est en suivant le dispositif conceptuel de la conduite de vie et de la voie de délivrance, héritage de Max Weber aux sciences sociales, qu’il étudie le phénomène social de la quête de sens, significatif pour les conceptions modernes de l’identité humaine. Le mémoire aborde dans un premier temps la situation spirituelle occidentale par la notion de désenchantement du monde (Max Weber), le rôle des cadres socialisateurs des sources du moi (Charles Taylor) et l’importance de l’idéal de la transcendance pour l’homme (Marcel Gauchet). À partir d’un corpus de romans (Siddhartha, Le Loup des Steppes, Narcisse et Goldmund, Le Jeu des Perles de Verre), il suit la recherche de sens des personnages de Hesse. À la frontière entre biographie sociologique et sociologie littéraire, ce mémoire prend comme appui les conduites de vie de personnages romancés afin de montrer le phénomène de la quête de sens, moyennant une traversée intérieure pour découvrir leur version propre de la transcendance. Au fil des chapitres, il présente les conceptions de la vérité, de la transcendance, de la délivrance, du sens de la vie dans des allers-retours entre la vie de l’écrivain, son œuvre et la situation spirituelle de son époque. En conclusion, il revient sur l’intérêt de lire Hermann Hesse aujourd’hui et questionne la pertinence de ses personnages comme sources d’inspiration de nos conduites de vie moderne. / In the aftermath of World War One, an unprecedented surge of creativity transformed the conception of modern identity. The fields of philosophy, psychology, and literature challenged and questioned the experience of being and of the existence. Following the ideas put forward by the writer Hermann Hesse (1877-1962), this thesis attempts to define the meaning of life as an existential problem in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. It is through the concepts of life conduct (Lebensführung) and road to salvation (Erlösung), both legacies of Max Weber to social sciences, that it studies the social phenomenon of the search for meaning, significant for modern conceptions of human identity. The thesis first addresses the Western spiritual condition through the notion of disenchantment with the world (Max Weber), the role of socializing frameworks in the sources of the self (Charles Taylor), and the transcendent and immanent approaches to the self (Marcel Gauchet). Drawing on a corpus of novels (Siddhartha, Steppenwolf, Narcissus and Goldmund, The Glass Bead Game), it trails Hesse’s characters’ search for meaning. At the border between sociological biography and literary sociology, this dissertation is based on the fictionalized characters’ life conduct as they search for meaning, through their discovery of transcendence. The chapters presents conceptions of truth, transcendence, salvation, the meaning of life, and back-and-forth movements between the writer’s life, his work, and the spiritual condition of his time. In conclusion, the thesis discusses the relevance of reading Hermann Hesse today and questions the pertinence of his characters as source of inspiration for our modern life conduct.

[pt] Deus deseja que todos os homens se salvem e cheguem ao conhecimento da verdade, mas Jesus afirmou que, para ser salvo, é necessário crer e ser batizado. Perante esses dois axiomas bíblicos, a teologia tem se questionado, desde o final do século XIX, sobre as possíveis vias de acesso à mesma salvação para os não-cristãos que ignoram, sem culpa, o evangelho. O concílio Vaticano II colheu as primeiras contribuições da teologia das religiões, constatou a existência de elementos de verdade nas outras religiões e reconheceu as sementes do Verbo que os Padres da Igreja afirmavam existir em cada ser humano. Apresentou possibilidade de seus membros, por uma graça misteriosa de Deus, serem inseridos na única e universal economia de salvação da Santíssima Trindade. Dois conteúdos direcionam a investigação de um caminho soteriológico para além do cristianismo, que considera Jesus como mediador e redentor universal. O primeiro é a declaração Dominus Iesus, escrita para recordar os princípios da fé cristã frente as propostas da teologia do pluralismo religioso, que sugeria uma economia salvífica paralela ou complementar àquela trazida por Cristo em comunhão com o Espírito Santo. O segundo são as obras de São Justino de Roma, que buscou identificar os elementos soteriológicos que permitem os judeus e pagãos terem acesso a Jesus e alcançarem a salvação. Para os pagãos, ele observou componentes da verdade e do Logos, com especial destaque para o Logos spermatikós, reconhecidos como partículas de Deus em cada ser humano. Para os judeus, que apresentavam a Lei, o sábado e a circuncisão como elementos salvíficos, Justino aponta o batismo como a verdadeira circuncisão, Jesus como o sábado verdadeiro e a Igreja como a Nova Lei. A partir dessas contribuições, a pesquisa apresenta os lugares teológicos onde a salvação dos não-cristãos pode ser identificada / [en] God wishes that everyone be saved and achieved a knowledge of the truth, but Jesus affirmed that in order to be saved it s necessary to believe and be baptized. Faced with these two biblical axioms, theology has questioned itself, since the end of the 19th century, about the possible ways of access to the same salvation for non-Christians who ignore, through no fault of their own, the gospel. The Second Vatican Council s gathered the first contributions of the theology of religions, verified the existence of elements of truth in other religions and recognized the seeds of the Verb that the Fathers of the Church affirmed to exist in every human. It presented the possibility of its members, by a mysterious grace of God, being inserted in the single and universal economy of salvation of the Holy Trinity. Two topics directing the investigation of a soteriological way beyond Christianity, which considers Jesus as mediator and universal redeemer. The first is the declaration Dominus Iesus, written to recall the principles of the Christian faith against the proposals of the theology of religious pluralism, which suggested a salvific economy parallel or complementary to that brought by Christ in communion with the Holy Spirit. The second is the works of Saint Justin of Rome, who fetched to identify the soteriological elements that allow Jews and pagans to have access to Jesus and achieve salvation. For pagans, he observed components of truth and Logos, with special emphasis on Logos spermatikós, recognized as particles of God in each human. For the Jews, who presented the Law, the saturday and circumcision as salvific elements, Justin points to baptism as the true circumcision, Jesus as the true saturday and the Church as the New Law. From these contributions, the research presents the theological places where the salvation of non-Christians can be identified.

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This dissertation makes an attempt to scientifically investigate Erich Sauer's theology of salvation history for the first time. Sauer grew up in a vital missionary context in the setting of the Open Brethren fellowship and the Alliance Bible School in Berlin. He studied history, philology and theology at the Humboldt University in Berlin, with the goal of promoting missions. Because of an acute eye ailment he was forced to discontinue his studies. He was invited to Wiedenest, where he found his life's work in the Bible School, which had moved in 1919. Here he worked for almost forty years as a teacher and a writer and travelling unceasingly to preach, lecture and hold biblical seminars on the topic of salvation history and missions. His theology, which is indebted to the theory of revelation history, was influenced by federal theology, theology of salvation history and the scientific, exegetic theology of German theological positivism. Sauer derives the authority of Scripture from history and develops a complex, salvation historical model, which is characterised by the classic structure of protology, soteriology and eschatology. His pre-millennial character is not dispensationally restricted, but has, rather, its own independent formation, that allows for the universal dimensions of God's completion act, without supporting a universal redemption theory. Through the high rating that he gives the position of the ecclesia in salvation history, Sauer has achieved a programmatic missions concept, which sees a missions-oriented church within every local church. With this paradigmatic theory, Sauer contributed to a revival of missions in German Brethren congregations, in conjunction with his professional colleague Schrupp. / Christian Spirituality, Church Hist and Missiology / D.Th.

This dissertation makes an attempt to scientifically investigate Erich Sauer's theology of salvation history for the first time. Sauer grew up in a vital missionary context in the setting of the Open Brethren fellowship and the Alliance Bible School in Berlin. He studied history, philology and theology at the Humboldt University in Berlin, with the goal of promoting missions. Because of an acute eye ailment he was forced to discontinue his studies. He was invited to Wiedenest, where he found his life's work in the Bible School, which had moved in 1919. Here he worked for almost forty years as a teacher and a writer and travelling unceasingly to preach, lecture and hold biblical seminars on the topic of salvation history and missions. His theology, which is indebted to the theory of revelation history, was influenced by federal theology, theology of salvation history and the scientific, exegetic theology of German theological positivism. Sauer derives the authority of Scripture from history and develops a complex, salvation historical model, which is characterised by the classic structure of protology, soteriology and eschatology. His pre-millennial character is not dispensationally restricted, but has, rather, its own independent formation, that allows for the universal dimensions of God's completion act, without supporting a universal redemption theory. Through the high rating that he gives the position of the ecclesia in salvation history, Sauer has achieved a programmatic missions concept, which sees a missions-oriented church within every local church. With this paradigmatic theory, Sauer contributed to a revival of missions in German Brethren congregations, in conjunction with his professional colleague Schrupp. / Christian Spirituality, Church Hist and Missiology / D.Th.

The reclamation and analysis of women's experiences within three Nonconformist denominations is the focus of this thesis. The first chapter places each denomination in its social and theological context, and describes its governing structures. The bulk of the thesis is devoted to situating women within this context and examining the ways in which women sought representation within male-dominated governing structures. Chapter two examines the conflict between Friends' egalitarian theology and women's lack of governing power. Although women Friends gained access to the governing body of the Society, the issue of equality remained problematic. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the Society's split over women's suffrage. The Baptist Zenana Mission is the focus of the third chapter. Zenana missionaries claimed spiritual and imperial authority over "native" women and used the languages of separate spheres to carve out a vocation for single women in keeping with denominational norms. In so doing, they marginalised the work done by missionary wives. The fourth chapter begins with an examination of the life and theology of Catherine Booth, whose contribution to the Salvation Army is often neglected. Catherine advocated women's ministry in terms that validated both "women's work for women" and public preaching. This chapter looks at the appeal of officership for women, especially the empowering experiences of salvation and holiness, and charts the growth of the Women's Social Work. Despite the Army's egalitarian theology, conflict was felt by women officers who struggled to combine corps and family duties. The final chapter briefly examines idealised representations of women to conclude that their defining power, while significant, was by no means hegemonic.