The dissertation addresses the negative consequences of the generally positive democratic ambition behind social planning: the good purpose may conceal less good actions. The aim is to study the thought-style of social planning and its most powerful topos, the denial of discrepancies. The focus of the dissertation is to exemplify how the denial of discrepancies and the consequences of denial become manifest. With emphasis on continuity and history, is shown how a Cartesian legacy shapes the thought-style of social planning, which is animated and upheld by the planning-collective: the integration of policy and science in planning. The planning-collective’s voice has become hegemonic through maintaining a harmony of illusions. The result is a lack of responsiveness to people’s varied modes of expression; voices that differ from the hegemonic thought-style are thus perceived as dissonance. Discrepancies in the form of differences of opinion and lack of consensus thus appear as sources of anxiety.  The mode of planning is based on a set of habitual thoughts and actions, topoi, that have become taken-for-granted. The result is an objectification of that which we call living, and the study shows through a number of examples, including “social economy”, how this form of objectification occurs. The epistemological frame of reference of the dissertation is constituted by Ludwik Fleck’s theory of thought-collectives, thought-styles and migrations of thought, and José Luis Ramírez’s action-theory, focused on language as action. Michel Foucault’s works on disciplining, political technologies, and discursive struggles are applied to create understanding of how the planning approach to representing people’s life activities has been shaped and how it influences them.

This thesis examines the role of democracy in British, French and American visions of global order in the 1940s. It argues that 'democracy' in a global context did not reflect 'Wilsonian' or 'Cosmopolitan' dreams, nor did it refer to the questions of state representation and institutional accountability that dominate contemporary debates. Instead, it shows that building a 'democratic' global order in the 1940s meant, above all, an attempt to address the challenge of democratic modernity, summarised by Karl Polanyi in 1944 as the search for 'freedom in a complex society', in the new global environment of the mid-century. This challenge was composed of five core concerns, ranging from the protection of the individual from the modern state and the transformation of democratic participation, to the use of expert planning and modern technology to secure economic justice. Achieving a balance between these competing and at times contradictory imperatives was seen as the key to securing a new democratic order that could resist the temptations of nationalism and totalitarianism and secure peace. Crucially, it was only through the structures of a new global order that, internationalists argued, there could be any chance of success. The task was not an easy one, and the historical investigation shows how the choices and trade-offs internationalists made in relation to these imperatives entailed costs in terms of inclusivity, participation and even rights within visions of democratic global order. The thesis has both historical and conceptual goals. First, it recovers important ideas about global order that have been largely written out of the history of this period by taking the language of democracy in world order debates seriously and understanding these visions in context. Conceptually, its aim is to contest and transform how we think about global order and democracy in the history of international thought and in the present day. Instead of Cosmopolitan, Wilsonian, liberal or other normative blueprints for a democratic world order, the conclusion argues that we should, following the example of the 1940s, reconceptualise the relationship between global order and democracy today in relation to the persistent dilemmas of democratic modernity. In a global context, these continue to have interlocking domestic and international dimensions and, more importantly, continue to require choices that entail normatively contestable costs in the construction of a democratic global order. Only then, it argues, will it be possible to think about how these shortcomings can be mitigated and whether and what kind of democratic order we want to pursue at all.

[pt] O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar a noção fregeana de pensamento e discutir o problema da dinâmica cognitiva. Para tal, serão seguidos os seguintes passos. Inicialmente, faremos uma análise da noção de pensamento tal como elaborada por Gottlob Frege. A teoria fregeana será contrastada com sua principal teoria alternativa, a saber, a explicação de Bertrand Russell dos pensamentos ou proposições. Em seguida, será discutido o problema da dinâmica cognitiva, a questão que diz respeito à preservação de crenças e conhecimento por um indivíduo diante das mudanças de contexto. Entende-se ser este um problema com o qual qualquer teoria do pensamento deve lidar. Nosso objetivo é avaliar as soluções para o problema desenvolvidas tanto pelos fregeanos quanto pelos neo-fregeanos, mostrando que elas têm méritos, mas também fraquezas. Questionar-se-á também a viabilidade das propostas de solução avaliadas e será apontada qual delas parece ser a mais plausível. Por fim, discutimos um tipo específico de pensamento que também concerne à questão da dinâmica cognitiva: tratam-se dos pensamentos na primeira pessoa, ou pensamentos de se, ou seja, pensamentos que têm como seu objeto o sujeito referido pelo pronome da primeira pessoa eu . Eles são um caso especial de pensamentos para os quais a questão da dinâmica cognitiva também vale, embora apresentem atributos típicos. Um desses atributos é a imunidade ao erro por má-identificação, já discutida na obra de Gareth Evans. Outras características dos pensamentos na primeira pessoa também serão discutidas, buscando-se apontar para aquela que parece ser a melhor forma de explicar sua natureza e a dinâmica cognitiva que eles envolvem. / [en] The aim of this essay is to analyze the fregean notion of thought and discuss the problem of cognitive dynamics. To this end, I shall take the following steps. To begin with, I analyze the very notion of thought as put forward by Gottlob Frege. Frege s theory is to be contrasted with its main alternative, that is, Russell s account of thoughts or propositions. I proceed, then, to discuss the issue of cognitive dynamics, which is the issue of how it is that the subject is able to maintain his beliefs through context changes. This is, I take it, a difficulty that any theory of thought has to face. My aim is to assess the solutions devised both by the Fregeans and the Neo-Fregeans, showing that they have merits as well as weaknesses. I also question the viability of the would-be solutions and tell which seems the soundest. Finally, I discuss a specific type of thought the issue of cognitive dynamics concerns too: the so-called I-thoughts, or de se thoughts, that is, thoughts that have as their object the very subject referred to by the first person pronoun I . They are a special case of thoughts for which the issue of cognitive dynamics holds too, although they present their own characteristic features. One of these features is the immunity to error through misidentification, already discussed in the work of Gareth Evans. Other characteristics of the I-thoughts will also be discussed, with a view to figure out what seems to be the best way to account for their nature and the cognitive dynamics they involve.

O objetivo da presente pesquisa é o de configurar o lugar do pensamento na obra de Michel Foucault, de modo que se evidenciem pontos de interlocução com algumas questões educacionais contemporâneas, em particular com aquelas que questionam os pressupostos de soberania do sujeito e do conhecimento os principais eixos norteadores das teorias críticas em educação. Nesse contexto, os estudos foucaultianos acerca do poder, da resistência e da subjetivação oferecem uma oportunidade ímpar de problematização das questões da verdade e do conhecimento, apontando para a experiência do pensamento da diferença. A pesquisa busca então sustentar o princípio de que, numa perspectiva pós-crítica, a tarefa educacional poderia deslocar-se do trabalho com o conhecimento para o do pensamento. Do ponto de vista metodológico, procedeu-se à genealogia da concepção de linguagem na obra do autor e, posteriormente, à do pensamento do fora e da diferença. Tais eixos temático-conceituais são vertebradores para a condução do percurso argumentativo. Assim, foram articuladas teoricamente as relações possíveis entre os conceitos de linguagem literária, loucura, morte, ser da linguagem, limite, transgressão, dobra e subjetivação. Nas considerações finais, estabeleceu-se que a experiência do pensamento instaura-se como uma possibilidade fecunda de produção ético-política da existência, cabendo à educação os cuidados em relação à estética de si e do mundo comum. / The present research aims at outlining the role of thought in Michel Foucalts work so as to highlight aspects which dialogue with certain contemporary educacional issues, mainly the ones that refer to the principles underlying the concepts concerning the sovereignty of the subject and knowledge, namely the main axes that guide the critical theories on education. Under the scenario, the Foucaultian studies on power, resistance as well as subjectivity offer an unique opportunity of problematizing the issues of truth and knowledge, focussing on the experience of the thought of difference. Therefore, this study tries to sustain, from a post-critical perspective, the principle that the focus of the educacional task could shift from working with knowledge to working with thought. From a methodological perspective, this work departed from the genealogy of the conception of language within the work of the author to the subsequent thought of the outside as well as the difference. Such thematic and conceptual axes proved to be essential to the development of the argumentative discussion. Hence, the possible relations between the notions of literary language, madness, death, linguistic being, border, trangression, fold and subjectivity were articulated. In the final considerations, it was stablished that the experience of thought departs from a rich possibility of ethical and political production of existence, thus empowering education with the responsibility of taking care of aesthetics at both the personal and the communal world.

Inom ramen för svensk grundskola har enskilda lärare varit betrodda med en högre grad av autonomi än lärare i många andra europeiska länder. Exempelvis har lärare givits ett stort ansvar att bedöma och betygssätta elevers kunskaper. Hur lärares bedömningar går till eller hur dessa bedömningar speglar en elevs kunskap framstår inte alltid tydligt för elever. Som en följd av att svenska elevers resultat i t.ex. matematik sjunkit i internationella kunskapsmätningar, har utvärdering av skolor, lärare och elevernas prestationer ökat – därmed har lärares bedömningsarbete fått mer uppmärksamhet i den skolpolitiska debatten, i såväl partipolitik som media. Utifrån de sjunkande resultaten har flera omfattande reformer inom skolan trätt i kraft sedan juli 2011. Som exempel på dessa reformer kan nämnas en ny skollag, en reviderad läroplan för grundskolan, samt nya föreskrifter för kunskapskrav för grundskolans ämnen med ny betygsskala vilka alla är styrande för lärares undervisning och bedömning av elevers kunskaper fr.o.m. årskurs 1 t.o.m. årskurs 9. Studien beskriver och analyserar svenska matematiklärares tankestilar om bedömning och matematikkunnighet. Det teoretiska ramverk som använts är relaterat till Flecks begrepp tankekollektiv och tankestil. För att studera lärares professionella samtal om bedömning och matematikkunnighet genomfördes semistrukturerade, materialbaserade fokusgruppsintervjuer. Materialet var elevers arbete, t.ex. prov- och matematikuppgifter. Fokusgruppsintervjuerna var sekventiella, dvs. inför respektive intervju användes föregående intervjus utskrift som underlag vid planering av nya frågor. Två fokusgrupper med matematiklärare i årskurs 4-6 från två skolor intervjuades sammanlagt vid åtta tillfällen under ett år. Detta betyder att det genomfördes fyra intervjuer på respektive skola. Intervjuerna ljudinspelades och transkriberades. Lärarna från de två skolorna hade olika förutsättningar i sitt arbete. På en av skolorna fanns redan et fungerande ämneslärarlag – lärarna träffades och samverkade återkommande varje vecka för att planera och diskutera matematik. På den andra skolan hade lärarna endast kommit samman för att delta i fokusgruppsintervjuerna. Resultaten visar att även om respektive lärargrupp hade olika förutsättningar, så kan grupperna ändå betraktas som ett tankekollektiv. Resultaten visar också att två övergripande tankestilar har urskilts: bedömning som borde göras kontinuerligt och matematikkunnighet är när du kan visa och redogöra för ditt resonemang. I återkommande kollegiala samtal kan tankestilen om bedömning och matematikkunnighet synliggöras. I samtalet finns möjlighet att utmana rådande traditioner genom att formulera och omformulera den kunskap och erfarenhet som redan finns för att bygga vidare på ny. Samtalen ger även möjlighet till att problematisera och utveckla lärarnas professionella språk samt visualisera lärarnas bedömningsarbete, vilket bidrar till att utveckla matematikundervisningen. / Individual teachers have been trusted with a higher degree of autonomy within the Swedish compulsory school than teachers in many other European countries. For example, teachers have been given the responsibility to assess and grade students’ knowledge. However, how teachers’ assessments reflect students’ knowledge is not always clear to students. As a result of that the Swedish students’ performance have declined in international knowledge measurements such as PIRLS, TIMSS and PISA, evaluation of schools, teachers and students’ performance has increased. Thus, teachers’ assessment work has received much attention in the debate on education policy as well as in media. This thesis describes and analyses Swedish mathematics teachers’ thought styles on assessment and mathematical knowing. The theoretical framework that was used is related to Fleck’s concepts thought style and thought collective. In order to study teachers’ conversations on assessment, semi structured material-based focus group interviews were carried out. The material was students’ work, e.g. test items. Selection was limited to certified mathematics teachers in Swedish compulsory school, year 4-6. The interviews were sequential, i.e. the transcription from the previous interview was used as basic data when planning the next interview. Two focus groups from two schools were interviewed on eight occasions during one year, four times with each school. The interviews were audio recorded and subsequently transcribed. The conditions for the two groups were different. At one school the teachers already met and interacted every week to plan and discuss mathematics. At the other, the teachers only came together when starting to participate in these focus group interviews. The results show that even though the two teacher groups had different conditions, they can be seen as one thought collective. Moreover, the results show the emergence of two thought styles: assessment should be done continuously and students should be able to show and argue for their reasoning. It is argued that when teachers interact in conversations the thought style on assessment becomes more conscious. Also these conversations offer a possibility to problematize and develop teachers’ professional language and visualize the assessment and teaching practice, all of which improves their development in mathematical pedagogy. The results emphasize the importance of organizing and structuring collegial conversations. This issue needs to be addressed at the school management level.

Maurice Barrès, en tant qu’un des plus grands maîtres à la fin du XIXe siècle et au début du XXe siècle de la France, exerce une grande influence dans la société française. Souvent réduit par la critique d’aujourd’hui au nationalisme, Barrès est cependant plus riche que ce que l’histoire en a retenu puisque sa pensée peut elle-même se décrire comme une trilogie, individualisme, nationalisme, catholicisme. Né dans une famille catholique, il conserve ses racines religieuses et dans son oeuvre, la présence de la religion est partout. Nous pourrions même affirmer que l’œuvre de Maurice Barrès est un exercice spirituel pour connaître la vérité : ses œuvres sont comme des expériences qui vont au bout du compte l’amener vers Dieu. Après l’individualisme et le nationalisme, l’écrivain trouve la voie de son salut dans le catholicisme. La pensée religieuse de Barrès occupe une grande place dans son œuvre, et cet aspect ne doit pas être négligé si l’on veut comprendre le grand écrivain. C’est un sujet riche et intéressant, qui mérite d’être exploité et étudié. De plus, sa pensée est tellement particulière que Barrès, lui-même, s’interroge dans un cahier : « Suis-je croyant ? Suis-je athée ? » Alors, cette étude présente tente à éclaircir la pensée religieuse du grand maître dans une période historique de la France. Et cette période si riche sur le plan des événements intellectuels permet aussi de comprendre mieux la France contemporaine, qui se saisit aujourd’hui à nouveau de mots comme « terre », « racine », « identité », etc. / As one of the greatest writers in the late XIXth and early XXth century in France, Maurice Barrès has greatly influenced the French society. Often reduced to nationalism by critics, however, Barrès is much richer than what history has withheld, since his thoughts could be described as a trilogy : individualism, nationalism and Catholicism. Born in a Catholic family, he retains his religious roots and the religion is clearly omnipresent in his works. The works of Maurice Barrès could be considered as the spiritual exercises and experiences that will ultimately bring him to the Supreme Being - God. After individualism and nationalism, the writer finds his own way of salvation in Catholicism. The religion occupies a large place in the works of Barrès. Nevertheless, this aspect should not be overlooked if we want to better understand his thoughts. The religious thought of Barrès is a rich and interesting topic that deserves to be studied and exploited. His thought is so special in the sense that Barrès questions his beliefs; he says in his personal diary : “Am I a believer ? Am I an atheist ?” This present study attempts to explain the religious thought of the great master during a specific period of French history. This period, which is very rich in terms of intellectual events, enables us to have a better view of contemporary France and the new acceptance of words such as “earth”, “root”, “identity”, etc.

A strong capability of large language models is Chain-of-Thought reasoning. Prompting a model to ‘think step-by-step’ has led to great performance improvements in solving problems such as planning and question answering, and with the extended output it provides some evidence about the rationale behind an answer or decision. In search of better, more robust, and interpretable language model behavior, this work investigates self-reflection in large language models. Here, self-reflection consists of feedback from large language models to medical question-answering and whether the feedback can be used to accurately distinguish between correct and incorrect answers. GPT-3.5-Turbo and GPT-4 provide zero-shot feedback scores to Chain-of-Thought reasoning on the MedQA (medical questionanswering) dataset. The question-answering is evaluated on traits such as being structured, relevant and consistent. We test whether the feedback scores are different for questions that were either correctly or incorrectly answered by Chain-of-Thought reasoning. The potential differences in feedback scores are statistically tested with the Mann-Whitney U test. Graphical visualization and logistic regressions are performed to preliminarily determine whether the feedback scores are indicative to whether the Chain-of-Thought reasoning leads to the right answer. The results indicate that among the reasoning objectives, the feedback models assign higher feedback scores to questions that were answered correctly than those that were answered incorrectly. Graphical visualization shows potential for reviewing questions with low feedback scores, although logistic regressions that aimed to predict whether or not questions were answered correctly mostly defaulted to the majority class. Nonetheless, there seems to be a possibility for more robust output from self-reflecting language systems. / En stark förmåga hos stora språkmodeller är Chain-of-Thought-resonerande. Att prompta en modell att tänka stegvis har lett till stora prestandaförbättringar vid lösandet av problem som planering och frågebesvarande, och med den utökade outputen ger det en del bevis rörande logiken bakom ett svar eller beslut. I sökandet efter bättre, mer robust och tolk bart beteende hos språkmodeller undersöker detta arbete självreflektion i stora språkmodeller. Forskningsfrågan är: I vilken utsträckning kan feedback från stora språkmodeller, såsom GPT-3.5-Turbo och GPT-4, på ett korrekt sätt skilja mellan korrekta och inkorrekta svar i medicinska frågebesvarande uppgifter genom användningen av Chainof-Thought-resonerande? Här ger GPT-3.5-Turbo och GPT-4 zero-shot feedback-poäng till Chain-ofThought-resonerande på datasetet för MedQA (medicinskt frågebesvarande). Frågebesvarandet bör vara strukturerat, relevant och konsekvent. Feedbackpoängen jämförs mellan två grupper av frågor, baserat på om dessa besvarades korrekt eller felaktigt i första hand. Statistisk testning genomförs på skillnaden i feedback-poäng med Mann-Whitney U-testet. Grafisk visualisering och logistiska regressioner utförs för att preliminärt avgöra om feedbackpoängen är indikativa för huruvida Chainof-Thought-resonerande leder till rätt svar. Resultaten indikerar att bland resonemangsmålen tilldelar feedbackmodellerna fler positiva feedbackpoäng till frågor som besvarats korrekt än de som besvarats felaktigt. Grafisk visualisering visar potential för granskandet av frågor med låga feedbackpoäng, även om logistiska regressioner som syftade till att förutsäga om frågorna besvarades korrekt eller inte för det mesta majoritetsklassen. Icke desto mindre verkar det finnas potential för robustare från självreflekterande språksystem.

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It is the thesis of this paper that the Church possesses traits which are characteristic of the human personality; therefore, her spiritual movement can be understood and dealth with through the insights of te Oedipus Complex Theory initially described by Sigmund Freud in his discussion of personality development, and greatly elaborated upon by Erich Fromm in his book, "The Forgotten Language".

In children, life-threatening illnesses (LTIs) present with both physical and psychosocial side effects, which seem to contribute to the perpetuation of hopelessness and fear among the children and their families. Children with LTIs often experience regular and painful treatment routines. A LTI not only impacts on the child but also on the family. LTIs put families in a critical and vulnerable situation, evoking emotions such as shock, disbelief and fear. Hope and coping strategies appear to be crucial for both children and their families when facing the effects of a LTI on a child. While medical intervention strategies are used to alleviate physical side effects, psychosocial intervention strategies (as referred to in this research study) that are focused on improving the well-being of the child and family, appear to be limited. Psychosocial interventions are defined as any intervention that emphasizes psychological or social factors, rather than biological factors. Psychosocial intervention strategies, such as „dream-come-true‟ projects, appear to ameliorate distress, offer respite, decrease isolation, empower individuals, increase self-confidence and give the children unique opportunities to connect with their families in a positive, normal way. Such a psychosocial intervention strategy is offered by the Reach For A Dream Foundation (RFAD) in South Africa. The experiences of the recipients of RFAD „dream-come-true‟ projects were the focus of this study. The goal of this research study was to study the „dream-come-true‟ psychosocial experiences of children/adolescents and their families, by means of a narrative enquiry design. This design allowed participants to tell their stories truthfully, giving the researcher the opportunity to immerse herself in the personal experience of each participant. Participants were purposively, and then randomly, selected from an RFAD client list. A total of six children/adolescents, between the ages of 8 and 18 years, were randomly selected from Johannesburg and the surrounding areas. The children/adolescents and both parents were interviewed, except for one father who was not present (17 participants in total). Child/adolescent interviews included the use of fun, tactile emotive cushions to assist the participants to recognize emotions they had felt „pre-dream‟, during the „dream‟, and „postdream‟. Semi-structured, individual in-depth interviews were used to interview parent participants. The parent‟s story was not interrupted, thereby providing the opportunity for a fluid narrative. In addition to interviews, the researcher made field notes of the participant‟s reactions, body language and emotions after each interview. All interviews were recorded and transcribed. Tesch‟s (1990) approach was used to identify, analyse and report patterns within the data. The findings of this study suggest that intervention strategies improve emotional health and overall wellness in participants. „Pre-dream‟ feelings of fear, sadness, loneliness and a lack of normality in everyday life, were prominent themes. Participating parents expressed anger, helplessness and guilt about being unable to help their children. During the „dream-come-true‟ experience, the predominant themes that emerged were excitement, amazement and gratitude. The theme of disbelief in the reality and experience of the „dream‟ was also prominent. „Post-dream‟, the participants reported a more positive, confident and hopeful outlook. This research appeared to yield some important information on the possible benefits of psychosocial intervention strategies, as they seemed helpful in addressing the challenges presented by LTIs in children/adolescents. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015