No / Spermatogenesis is characterized by the succession in time and space of specific germ cell associations (stages). There can be a single stage (e.g., rodents and some macaques) or more than one stage (e.g., chimpanzee and human) per tubular cross section. We analyzed the organization of the seminiferous epithelium and quantified testicular germ cell production and apoptosis in a New World primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Tubule cross sections contained more than one stage, and the human six-stage system could be applied to marmoset spermatogenesis. Stereological (optical disector) analysis (n = 5) revealed high spermatogenic efficiency during meiosis and no loss of spermatids during spermiogenesis. The conversion of type A to type B spermatogonia was several-fold higher than that reported for other primates. Highest apoptotic rates were found for S-phase cells (20%) and 4C cells (15%) by flow cytometric analysis (n = 6 animals); histological analysis confirmed spermatogonial apoptosis. Haploid germ cell apoptosis was <2%. Marmoset spermatogenesis is very efficient and involves substantial spermatogonial proliferation. The prime determinants of germ cell production in primates appear to be proliferation and survival of spermatogonia rather than the efficiency of meiotic divisions. Based on the organizational similarities, common marmosets could provide a new animal model for experimental studies of human spermatogenesis.

No / The use of biomarkers of early genetic effects, predictive for cancer, such as micronuclei (MN) in lymphocytes, may help to investigate the association between diet and cancer. We hypothesised that the presence of mutagens in the diet may increase MN formation. A 'pooled' standardised analysis was performed by applying the same experimental protocol for the cytokinesis block micronucleus assay in 625 young healthy women after delivery from five European study populations (Greece, Denmark, UK, Spain and Norway). We assessed MN frequencies in mono- and binucleated T-lymphocytes (MNMONO and MNBN) and the cytokinesis blocked proliferation index using a semi-automated image analysis system. Food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) were used to estimate intake of fatty acids and a broad range of immunotoxic and genotoxic/carcinogenic compounds through the diet. Pooled difference based on delivery type revealed higher MNMONO frequencies in caesarean than in vaginal delivery (P = 0.002). Statistical analysis showed a decrease in MNMONO frequencies with increasing calculated omega-6 PUFA concentrations and a decrease in MNBN frequencies with increasing calculated omega-3 PUFA concentrations. The expected toxic compounds estimated by FFQs were not associated with MN formation in mothers after delivery. In pregnant women, an omega-3 and -6 rich diet estimated by FFQ is associated with lower MN formation during pregnancy and delivery.

La déubiquitinase BRCA-associated protein 1 (BAP1) est un suppresseur de tumeurs chez l’homme, dont l’activité enzymatique est inactivée dans une variété de cancers. Les modèles actuels proposent que BAP1 forme un complexe de plusieurs méga daltons avec des protéines associées à la chromatine, et que ces protéines et les modifications post-traductionnelles (PTM) facilitent sa fonction de suppresseur de tumeurs en agissant sur la chromatine. Il a été démon-tré que les facteurs de transcription FOXK1 et FOXK2 recrutent BAP1 pour cibler des gènes et réguler la transcription. Cependant, comment FOXK1/2 sont régulés dans le complexe BAP1 reste inconnu. FOXK1/2 sont récemment apparus comme des régulateurs clés du métabolisme et de la prolifération cellulaire dans des conditions normales et de stress. Les observations dans les can-cers humains suggèrent que FOXK1, et non FOXK2, possède des propriétés oncogéniques. En effet, une expression élevée de FOXK1 est associée à une prolifération accrue, ainsi qu’à une invasion et des métastases plus importantes. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires exacts de la dérégulation de FOXK1 restent méconnus. Nos analyses sur la survie des patients montrent qu’une forte expression du transcrit de FOXK1 diminue significativement la survie par rapport aux patients présentant de faibles taux du transcrit de FOXK1, ce qui n’est pas observé avec FOXK2. Pour mieux comprendre les fonctions de FOXK1 et FOXK2, nous avons surexprimé ses protéines dans des fibroblastes humains normaux. Cela nous a conduits à découvrir que les pro-priétés oncogéniques de FOXK1 agissent en partie par l’induction de la voie des E2Fs. Contrai-rement à FOXK2, la surexpression de FOXK1 dans les fibroblastes humains normaux favorise la prolifération cellulaire et retarde l’induction de la sénescence. Nous avons également constaté que lorsque la surexpression de FOXK1 était combinée à d’autres oncogènes, sa capacité à transformer les fibroblastes était significativement augmentée. Ces résultats suggèrent que FOXK1 et FOXK2 jouent différents rôles dans les cellules et qu’un mécanisme peut réguler leur activité différemment. De manière intéressante, nous avons découvert que FOXK1, et non FOXK2, est modifié par O-GlcNAcylation, une modification post-traductionnelle unique connue pour être étroite-ment régulée par les fluctuations du métabolisme cellulaire. Par conséquent, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que la O-GlcNAcylation est un mécanisme important de régulation de l’activité transcriptionnelle de FOXK1. L’identification des sites modifiés sur FOXK1 nous a permis de créer des mutants déficients en O-GlcNAcylation de ce facteur. Alors que la perte de la O-GlcNAcylation n’impacte pas sur le recrutement de FOXK1 à la chromatine, nous avons décou-vert que la O-GlcNAcylation régule les propriétés oncogéniques de FOXK1. En effet, l’absence de la O-GlcNAcylation de FOXK1 diminue la capacité proliférative des cellules ainsi que la crois-sance tumorale. De plus, nos analyses de génomiques nous ont permis de mettre en évidence que la O-GlcNAcylation régule le recrutement de BAP1 sur la chromatine. La diminution de la O-GlcNAcylation sur FOXK1 entraîne une réduction du recrutement de BAP1, ce qui est associé à une augmentation des niveaux de H2AK119Ub, une marque de répression génique ciblée par la déubiquitinase BAP1, ainsi qu’à une diminution de la marque d’activation H3K4me1. Nous proposons un modèle dans lequel la O-GlcNAcylation régule les fonctions biolo-giques de FOXK1 et promeut la croissance tumorale en pilotant les propriétés oncogéniques de ce facteur. Nos analyses suggèrent que la O-GlcNAcylation de FOXK1 est importante pour le bon fonctionnement des complexes sur la chromatine. Comprendre comment FOXK1 et FOXK2 régu-lent BAP1 pourrait nous aider à mieux définir les fonctions de suppression tumorale de BAP1 et comment la dérégulation des facteurs de transcription contribue au développement du cancer. / The deubiquitinase BAP1 (BRCA-associated protein 1) is a tumor suppressor in humans, whose enzymatic activity is inactivated in a variety of cancers. Current models suggest that BAP1 forms mega dalton complex with chromatin-associated proteins, and that these proteins and post-translational modifications (PTMs) facilitate its tumor suppressor function by acting on chromatin. It has been shown that the transcription factors FOXK1 and FOXK2 recruit BAP1 to target genes and regulate transcription. However, how FOXK1/2 are regulated within the BAP1 complex remains unknown. FOXK1/2 have recently emerged as key regulators of metabolism and cell proliferation under normal and stress conditions. Observations in human cancers suggest that FOXK1, and not FOXK2, has oncogenic properties. Indeed, high expression of FOXK1 is associated with increased proliferation, as well as greater invasion and metastasis. However, the exact molecular mechanisms of FOXK1 deregulation remain unknown. Our analyses of patient survival show that high expression of FOXK1 transcript significantly reduces survival compared to patients with low levels of FOXK1 transcript, which is not observed with FOXK2. To better understand the functions of FOXK1 and FOXK2, we overexpressed their proteins in normal human fibroblasts. This led us to discover that the oncogenic properties of FOXK1 act in part by inducing the E2F pathway. Unlike FOXK2, overexpression of FOXK1 in normal human fibroblasts promotes cell proliferation and delays the induction of senescence. We also found that when overexpression of FOXK1 was combined with other oncogenes, its ability to transform fibroblasts was significantly increased. These results suggest that FOXK1 and FOXK2 play different roles in cells and that a mechanism may regulate their activity differently. Interestingly, we discovered that FOXK1, and not FOXK2, is modified by O-GlcNAcylation, a unique post-translational modification known to be tightly regulated by fluctuations in cellular metabolism. Consequently, we hypothesized that O-GlcNAcylation is an important mechanism for regulating the transcriptional activity of FOXK1. Identifying the modified sites on FOXK1 allowed us to create mutants deficient in O-GlcNAcylation of this factor. While the loss of O-GlcNAcylation does not affect the recruitment of FOXK1 to chromatin, we discovered that O-GlcNAcylation regulates the oncogenic properties of FOXK1. Indeed, the absence of O-GlcNAcylation of FOXK1 reduces the proliferative capacity of cells as well as tumor growth. Moreover, our genomic analyses have allowed us to highlight that O-GlcNAcylation regulates the recruitment of BAP1 to chromatin. Loss of FOXK1 O-GlcNAcylation leads to a reduction of BAP1 recruitment to chromatin, which is associated with an increase in the levels of H2AK119Ub, a gene repression mark targeted by the deubiquitinase BAP1, as well as a decrease in the activation mark H3K4me1. We propose a model in which O-GlcNAcylation regulates the biological functions of FOXK1 and promotes tumor growth by driving the oncogenic properties of this factor. Our analyses suggest that O-GlcNAcylation of FOXK1 is important for the proper functioning of complexes on chromatin. Understanding how FOXK1 and FOXK2 regulate BAP1 could help us better define the tumor-suppressing functions of BAP1 and how the deregulation of transcription factors contributes to cancer development.

Cultured meat offers a sustainable alternative to traditional meat production, addressing critical environmental and ethical issues. A key aspect of this process is the large-scale proliferation of muscle satellite cells, which can further proliferate and form the primary component of cultured meat. However, ensuring efficient cell proliferation within bioreactors is a significant challenge. Without effective and robust cell proliferation, it would be impossible to meet the production demands of cultured meat. Moreover, 3D cell spheroids tend to form tightly packed structures. As these spheroids grow larger, the limited penetration of oxygen and nutrients can lead to the formation of necrotic cores or cause cells in the central layers to experience cell cycle arrest, resulting in either irreversible senescence or reversible quiescence. This adds complexity to maintaining stable cell growth. To address these challenges, different ECM components, specifically Matrigel and Collagen I, were introduced to alter matrix stiffness and growth factor concentrations. The goal was to address issues of reduced cell proliferation and cell cycle arrest. Results demonstrated that in the absence of ECM, 3D-cultured bovine muscle satellite cells spontaneously formed myospheres but exhibited cell cycle arrest and inhibited proliferation. These issues were reversed with the addition of ECM. Increasing ECM stiffness, particularly through higher concentrations of Matrigel and Collagen I, significantly enhanced cell spreading but had a complex effect on cell proliferation. While Matrigel promoted both cell spreading and proliferation, higher stiffness and growth factor levels were associated with reduced proliferation rates, indicating a trade-off between these processes. Notably, a stiffness of 1.5 Pa with 1.56 mg/ml Matrigel yielded the highest proliferation rate, suggesting this condition might be optimal for use in bioreactor systems. Additionally, increasing matrix stiffness using Collagen I also enhanced cell spreading, indicating that cell spreading is strongly influenced by ECM stiffness. Furthermore, Matrigel reduced the expression of quiescence and senescence markers, helping to maintain cells in a proliferative state. These findings underscore the importance of optimizing ECM properties to balance cell proliferation and structural organization in 3D cultures, providing a foundation for scaling up 3D culture systems in bioreactor settings—a critical step toward large-scale cultured meat production. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

La sénescence est un important mécanisme cellulaire qui prévient la tumorigenèse et se caractérise par un arrêt permanent du cycle cellulaire orchestré principalement par les inhibiteurs des cycline-kinases dépendantes (i.e p16INK4a). La sénescence est une caractéristique importante du vieillissement, mais un déséquilibre dans son induction peut être délétère pour la régénération tissulaire et paradoxalement pour la progression tumorale. L'irradiation (IR) est couramment utilisée comme approche thérapeutique dans le cancer. Chez les enfants survivants du cancer, l’exposition à l’irradiation et à la chimiothérapie entrainent le développement d’importants effets secondaires, lesquels sont associés à une forme de vieillissement prématuré. La formation de cellules sénescentes, en inhibant la prolifération tissulaire et en sécrétant des cytokines proinflammatoires, pourrait être en être responsable. Notre groupe a précédemment démontré que le gène p16INK4a est augmenté de manière tardive (environ 8 semaines) suite à une exposition à l’irradiation. Il n'a pas encore été étudié si cette expression retardée survient en réponse aux dommages causés par l'irradiation sur l’homéostasie tissulaire ou à titre de mécanismes de suppression tumorale. Un objectif de cette thèse visait donc à déterminer s’il était possible de moduler/inhiber l’expression de p16INK4a dans le but d’accroitre la régénération tissulaire sans nécessairement accroitre les risques d’incidence du cancer. En effet, ceci pourrait être possible dans la mesure ou la sénescence induite par p16INK4a est également irréversible in vivo. Nos résultats ont démontré que l’inhibition de l’expression de p16INKa (suite à l’administration de tamoxifen chez les souris p16L/LCre), induit à la fois une augmentation de la régénération tissulaire mais malheureusement également une augmentation de l’incidence du cancer. Nous voulions également connaitre l’impact de l’accumulation de ces cellules sénescentes sur les tissus, plus spécifiquement sur la fonction des cellules immunitaires de la rate. Nous avons démontré que des altérations (dépendantes de p16INK4a) au sein du microenvironnement splénique pouvaient altérer les fonctions intrinsèques des macrophages, des cellules dendritiques et des lymphocytes T. En outre, l'élimination systémique des cellules p16INK4a positives (modèle de sourie p16-3MR) a conduit à une restauration partielle de la fonction de ces cellules immunitaires. La combinaison de ces données nous permet de mieux comprendre le rôle et la fonction du gène p16INK4a dans le processus de sénescence induite par l’irradiation. Nos résultats suggèrent qu’il est envisageable d’utiliser des agents pharmacologiques tels que des composés sénolytiques, capables d’induire l’apoptose chez les cellules sénescentes spécifiquement, afin de potentiellement diminuer les effets du vieillissement prématuré induit par la sénescence cellulaire chez les survivants du cancer. / Senescence is an important cellular mechanism that prevents tumorigenesis and is characterized by a permanent cell cycle arrest orchestrated by cyclin-dependent kinases inhibitors (i.e p16INK4a). Senescence is an important hallmark of aging and unbalanced levels of senescence is considered deleterious for tissue regeneration, and paradoxically for tumor progression. Irradiation (IR) is commonly used therapeutic approach in cancer treatment. Together with surgery and chemotherapy, it has helped to increase the life expectancy of patients and, in some cases, leads to complete remission. However, long-after therapy, children who survive cancer encounter alterations in the integrity of tissues/organs associated with premature aging. The accumulation of senescent cells may be responsible for this accelerated aging by limiting tissue proliferation and secreting pro-inflammatory cytokines. Our group has previously demonstrated that the p16INK4a gene is increased in a delayed manner (approximately 8 weeks) following exposure to IR. It has not yet been investigated whether this delayed expression occurs in response to IR-induce damage of tissue homeostasis or as tumor suppression mechanisms. One objective of this thesis was to determine whether it was possible to modulate / inhibit the expression of p16INK4a in order to increase tissue regeneration without necessarily increasing the risk of cancer incidence. Indeed, this may be possible since p16INK4a-induced senescence is also irreversible in vivo. Our results demonstrated that the inhibition of p16INK4a expression in conditional-p16INK4a null mice , induces both an increase in tissue regeneration but unfortunately also an increase in the incidence of cancer. We also wanted to know the impact of the accumulation of these senescent cells on the tissues, more specifically on the function of the immune cells in the spleen. We have demonstrated that alterations (p16INK4a-dependent) within the splenic microenvironment can alter the intrinsic functions of macrophages, dendritic cells and T cells. In addition, the systemic elimination of p16INK4a positive cells (mouse model p16-3MR) has led to a partial restoration of the function of these immune cells. The combination of these data allows us to better understand the role and function of the p16INK4a gene in the irradiation-induced senescence process. Our results suggest that it is conceivable to use pharmacological agents such as senolytic compounds, capable of inducing apoptosis in senescent cells specifically, in order to potentially reduce the effects of premature aging induced by cellular senescence in cancer survivors.

Die neonatale Hypoxie, als Schwangerschafts- und Geburtskomplikation, ist der wichtigste prädisponierende Umweltfaktor in der Pathophysiologie der Schizophrenie. Sie führt zu einer Schädigung des Gehirns und einer Störung der Hirnentwicklung. Insgesamt sind die neurobiologischen Auswirkungen, insbesondere auf die Zellproliferation, unklar. Im Tiermodell konnten bereits Verhaltensauffälligkeiten ähnlich der Schizophrenie, infolge chronischer neonataler Hypoxie, festgestellt werden. Störungen in der Zellentwicklung könnten hierfür die Ursache sein. Die Hypothese, dass der Beginn der abnormalen Hirnentwicklung perinatal liegt, während erste klinische Symptome im frühen Erwachsenenalter manifest werden, unterstützt diese Ergebnisse. Die Hirnentwicklung der Ratte ist in der frühen postnatalen Periode vergleichbar mit der eines menschlichen Fötus im dritten Trimenon der Schwangerschaft und eignet sich daher pathologische Prozesse im zentralen Nervensystem des Menschen zu reflektieren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde mit Hilfe postnataler Hypoxie die neuronale Zellproliferation in 20 männlichen Wistar-Ratten zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten (postnataler Tag 13 und 39) untersucht. Die Hypoxietiere wurden vom postnatalen Tag vier bis acht einer Hypoxie, bestehend aus 11% O2 und 89% N2, ausgesetzt. Mit Hilfe der Bromodeoxyuridin-Peroxidasefärbung wurde die Zellproliferation in Hypoxie-vulnerablen Hirnregionen untersucht. Hierzu gehören der Gyrus cinguli, das Striatum, der Gyrus dentatus und die subventrikuläre Zone. Als Vergleich diente eine unbehandelte Kontrollgruppe. Durch ein Mikroskop mit Schrittmotorsystem und Stereo Investigator Software (MicroBrightField, UK) und der Optical Fractionator-Methode konnte erstmals festgestellt werden, dass Hypoxie-behandelte Tiere eine um 20% erhöhte Zellproliferation im Gyrus cinguli am postnatalen Tag 13 aufwiesen. Des Weiteren zeigte sich bei den Hypoxie-behandelten Tieren ein um 16% reduziertes Volumen im Striatum am postnatalen Tag 13. Am postnatalen Tag 39 zeigten sich keine signifikanten Unterschiede mehr. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass ein vorübergehender Einfluss chronischer Hypoxie auf die Zellproliferation und das Volumen angenommen werden kann und das das Gehirn innerhalb gewisser Grenzen während der neuronalen Entwicklung tolerant gegenüber exogenen Noxen wie Hypoxie zu sein scheint. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen auch, dass nur ein kleiner Teil der Hypoxie-assoziierten Geburtskomplikationen zu einer Schizophrenie führt und der Erkrankung eine multifaktorielle Gen-Umwelt-Interaktion zugrunde liegt. Zukünftig könnte es, mit der besseren Kenntnis neurobiologischer Auswirkungen von Umweltfaktoren und genetischen Faktoren im Gehirn, möglich werden die Schizophrenie frühzeitiger zu erkennen und zu behandeln sowie behindernde Symptome zu reduzieren.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Insights into the role of oxidative stress and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D) reveals an opportunity for the development of novel therapeutics that directly protect and preserve β-cells. The protective role of dietary antioxidants, such as plant polyphenols, against oxidative stress induced diseases, including T2D, is increasingly under scrutiny. Polyphenol-rich extracts of Cyclopia spp, containing mangiferin, may provide novel therapeutics. An aqueous extract of unfermented Cyclopia maculata, containing more than 6 % mangiferin, was assessed for its protective effect in pancreatic β-cells in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo under conditions characteristic of T2D. The effect of mangiferin was also evaluated in vitro and ex vivo, with N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) as an antioxidant control. In this study, we established in vitro toxicity models in RIN-5F insulinoma cells based on conditions β-cells are exposed to in T2D; i.e. lipotoxicity, inflammation and oxidative stress conditions. To achieve this, cells were exposed to the following stressors: palmitic acid (PA), a pro-inflammatory cytokine combination and streptozotocin (STZ), respectively. Thereafter, the ability of the C. maculata extract, mangiferin and NAC to protect RIN-5F cells from the effects of these stressors was assessed by measuring β-cell viability, function and oxidative stress. Cell viability was assessed using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, adenosine triphosphate and annexin-V and propidium iodide assays. Cell function was evaluated by measuring glucose stimulated insulin secretion, cell proliferation and cellular calcium. To assess oxidative stress in the RIN-5F cells, diaminofluorescein-FM and dihydroethidium fluorescence, and superoxide dismutase enzyme activity were measured. The in vitro findings were then verified in isolated pancreatic rat islets using methods and models established in the RIN-5F experiments. The protective effect of the extract, NAC and metformin was assessed in STZ induced diabetic Wistar rats, using two treatment regimes, i.e. by treating rats with established diabetes and by pretreating rats prior to induction of diabetes by STZ. Glucose metabolism, oxidative stress and pancreatic morphology were assessed by performing an oral glucose tolerance test, measuring serum insulin, triglycerides, nitrites, catalase and glutathione. Hepatic thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and nitrotyrosine were also assessed. Immunohistochemical labelling of pancreata with insulin, glucagon and MIB-5 was used for morphological assessment. The extract improved β-cell viability, function and attenuated oxidative stress, most apparently in STZ and PA induced toxicity models comparable with NAC both in vitro and in isolated islets. Mangiferin was not as effective, showing only marginal improvement in RIN-5F cell and islet function, and oxidative stress. Pretreatment of STZ induced diabetic Wistar rats with extract was as effective as, if not better than, metformin in improving glucose tolerance, hypertriglyceridaemia and pancreatic islet morphology related to improved β-cell function. This study demonstrated that the aqueous extract of unfermented C. maculata was able to protect pancreatic β-cells from STZ and PA induced toxicity in vitro and ex vivo. In vivo, pretreatment with the extract improved glucose metabolism and pancreatic islet morphology in STZ induced diabetic Wistar rats. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Insigte oor die rol wat oksidatiewe stres en pankreas β-sel disfunksie in die patogenese van tipe 2-diabetes (T2D) speel, bied 'n geleentheid vir die ontwikkeling van nuwe terapeutiese middels wat β-selle direk daarteen beskerm. Die beskermende rol van antioksidante in die dieët soos plantaardige polifenole teen oksidatiewe stres geinduseerde siektes soos T2D, is toenemend onder die soeklig. Polifenolryk ekstrakte van Cyclopia spp wat mangiferin bevat mag nuwe terapeutiese middels lewer. ‘n Waterekstrak van ongefermenteerde Cyclopia maculata wat meer as 6% mangiferin bevat, is ondersoek vir sy beskermende effek op pankreas ß-selle in vitro, ex vivo en in vivo teen kondisies kenmerkend aan T2D. Die effek van mangiferin is ook in vitro en ex vivo geëvalueer, met N-asetielsistien (NAC) as 'n antioksidant kontrole. In hierdie studie is in vitro toksisiteitsmodelle in RIN-5F insulinoomselle gevestig. Die modelle is gebaseer op toestande waaraan β-selle blootgestel word tydens T2D; d.w.s. lipotoksisiteit, inflammasie en oksidatiewe stres. Hiervoor is die selle aan die volgende stressors blootgestel: palmitiensuur (PA), ‘n pro-inflammatoriese sitokien mengsel en streptozotosien (STZ). Vervolgens is die vermoë van die C. maculata ekstrak, mangiferin en NAC om die RIN-5Fselle teen hierdie stressors te beskerm, beoordeel deur die meting van β-sellewensvatbaarheid, funksie en oksidatiewe stres. Sellewensvatbaarheid is bepaal met 3-(4,5-dimetielthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-difenieltetrazolium bromied, adenosientrifosfaat en anneksien-V and propidium jodied toetse. Selfunksie is geëvalueer d.m.v. glukose gestimuleerde insuliensekresie, selproliferasie en sellulêre kalsium bepaling. Oksidatiewe stres in die RIN-5Fselle is geëvalueer d.m.v. diaminofluorescein-FM en dihidroethidium fluoressensie bepalings, asook meting van superoksied dismutase ensiemaktiwiteit. Die in vitro bevindings is daarna in geїsoleerde rot pankreaseilande bevestig deur die metodes en modelle wat in die RIN-5F eksperimente gebruik is. Die antidiabetiese effekte van die ekstrak, NAC en metformien in STZ-geїnduseerde diabetiese Wistar rotte is bepaal d.m.v. twee behandlingsregimes, d.w.s. die behandeling van rotte met gevestigde diabetes of deur die behandeling voor die induksie van diabetes te begin. Glukose metabolisme, oksidatiewe stres en veranderinge in die pankreasmorfologie is ondersoek d.m.v. orale glukose toleransie toetse en die bepaling van serum insulien, trigliseriedes, nitriete, katalase en glutationien. Hepatiese tiobarbituursuur reaktiewe stowwe en nitrotirosien is ook geëvalueer. Immunohistochemiese kleuring van pankreas snitte is gebruik vir morfologiese assessering van insulien, glukagon en MIB-5. Die ekstrak het mees opvallend β-sel lewensvatbaarheid en funksie verbeter, terwyl oksidatiewe stres verminder is in die STZ- en PA-geїnduseerde toksisiteitmodelle. Bogenoemde effekte van die ekstrak in vitro en in die geїsoleerde eilande was vergelykbaar met die van NAC. Mangiferin was minder effektief, met slegs ‘n marginale verbetering in die funksie van RIN-5Fselle en eilande, asook t.o.v. oksidatiewe stres. Behandeling van die Wistar rotte met die ekstrak voor induksie van diabetes met STZ was net so effektief, of selfs beter as metformien in terme van verbeterde glukosetoleransie, trigliseriedvlakke en die morfologie van pankreas eilande wat verband gehou het met β-sel funksie. Hierdie studie het getoon dat die waterekstrak van ongefermenteerde C. maculata pankreas β-selle teen veral STZ- en PA-geїnduseerde toksisiteit in vitro en ex vivo beskerm het. In vivo het behandeling met die ekstrak voor en na induksie van diabetes, glukosemetabolisme en die morfologie van pankreas eilande in STZ-geїnduseerde diabetiese Wistar rotte verbeter.

Articular cartilage has a low propensity for self-repair, due to which 27 million people are affected by osteoarthritis every year in North America. The current repair techniques used for cartilage defects possess flaws that reduce long-term clinical success. Tissue engineering carries with it the promise of engineering hyaline-like cartilage with physical and biochemical properties, similar to that of native cartilage. This being said, the primary objective of my project was to engineer clinically relevant sized articular cartilage constructs. To achieve my objective, first, I investigated the effect of continuous culture on cartilaginous tissue growth. Constructs grown under continuous media flow significantly accumulated more collagen and glycosaminoglycan, and displayed a stratified morphology, similar to that found in native cartilage. The second goal was to further increase chondrocyte proliferation, and extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation. To achieve this, constructs were grown in a bioreactor with media supplemented with 14 mM sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). Constructs cultivated in the bioreactor with NaHCO3 supplementation exhibited a significant (p<0.05) increase in ECM accumulation (a 98-fold increase in glycosaminoglycans and a 25-fold increase in collagen content), cell proliferation (a 13-fold increase), and thickness (a 28-fold increase) compared to all other conditions (static and reactor without NaHCO3 supplementation). The third goal was to engineer cartilage constructs with as little cells as possible, reducing donor site morbidity. From the results obtained, it was evident that the monolayer constructs outperformed all the other constructs (pellet, biopsy, and minced). The final goal was to understand the underlying reason for the increased proliferation. First, I investigated if there were any differences present in intracellular pH (pHi) and intracellular buffering capacity. Second, I determined the role of extracellular pH (pHe) on cell proliferation. In an effort to accurately achieve this, I, for the first time, have reported on measuring pHi of chondrocytes while still in culture (2D and 3D cultures) using a confocal microscope. This study demonstrated the importance of extracellular environments, such as pHe, extracellular buffering capacity, and the presence of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate ions for chondrocyte proliferation. / Thesis (Ph.D, Chemical Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2012-10-30 19:19:32.026

BACKGROUND: Scythe/BAT3 is a member of the BAG protein family whose role in apoptosis has been extensively studied. However, since the developmental defects observed in Bat3-null mouse embryos cannot be explained solely by defects in apoptosis, we investigated whether BAT3 is also involved in cell-cycle progression. METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Using a stable-inducible Bat3-knockdown cellular system, we demonstrated that reduced BAT3 protein level causes a delay in both G1/S transition and G2/M progression. Concurrent with these changes in cell-cycle progression, we observed a reduction in the turnover and phosphorylation of the CDK inhibitor p21, which is best known as an inhibitor of DNA replication; however, phosphorylated p21 has also been shown to promote G2/M progression. Our findings indicate that in Bat3-knockdown cells, p21 continues to be synthesized during cell-cycle phases that do not normally require p21, resulting in p21 protein accumulation and a subsequent delay in cell-cycle progression. Finally, we showed that BAT3 co-localizes with p21 during the cell cycle and is required for the translocation of p21 from the cytoplasm to the nucleus during the G1/S transition and G2/M progression. CONCLUSION: Our study reveals a novel, non-apoptotic role for BAT3 in cell-cycle regulation. By maintaining a low p21 protein level during the G1/S transition, BAT3 counteracts the inhibitory effect of p21 on DNA replication and thus enables the cells to progress from G1 to S phase. Conversely, during G2/M progression, BAT3 facilitates p21 phosphorylation by cyclin A/Cdk2, an event required for G2/M progression. BAT3 modulates these pro- and anti-proliferative roles of p21 at least in part by regulating cyclin A abundance, as well as p21 translocation between the cytoplasm and the nucleus to ensure that it functions in the appropriate intracellular compartment during each phase of the cell cycle. / Dissertation

Le trouble bipolaire est une maladie invalidante caractérisée par une alternance d’épisodes maniaques et dépressifs. Malgré des efforts de recherche notables, la physiopathologie et les mécanismes d’action des traitements du trouble bipolaire demeurent peu connus. La protéine kinase C (PKC) est récemment apparue comme une cible moléculaire potentielle pour le traitement du trouble bipolaire. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons cherché à étudier le rôle de la PKC dans les phases maniaque et dépressive du trouble bipolaire. Nous avons montré que l’inhibition de la PKC a un effet antimaniaque non seulement chez le rat naïf, mais aussi dans un modèle de manie basé sur une privation de sommeil, que nous avons validé au cours de notre étude. De plus, les inhibiteurs de la PKC sont capables de rétablir les déficits de prolifération cellulaire hippocampique que présentent les rats privés de sommeil. Ces effets prolifératifs et antimaniaques seraient indépendants, puisque le blocage de la prolifération cellulaire n’abolit pas l’efficacité antimaniaque des inhibiteurs de la PKC dans le modèle de privation de sommeil. En parallèle, nous avons montré que l’activation de la PKC a un effet antidépresseur chez le rat naïf, alors que son inhibition provoque un phénotype pseudodépressif qui s’accompagne d’une diminution de la prolifération cellulaire hippocampique. L’ensemble de ces données révèle une implication de la PKC dans les deux phases du trouble bipolaire, et soutient l’hypothèse qu’une suractivation du système PKC serait à l’origine des perturbations de neuroplasticité associées à la manie. / Bipolar disorder is a devastating long-term disease characterized by alternate episodes of mania and depression. Despite extensive research, the molecular and cellular underpinnings of bipolar disorder remain to be fully elucidated. Protein kinase C (PKC) has emerged as a potential molecular target for the treatment of bipolar disorder. The present study investigated the role of PKC in manic- and depressive-like behaviors. Our results showed that PKC inhibition produced an antimanic-like effect not only in naive rats, but also in an animal model of mania based on sleep deprivation, that we have validated in our study. Interestingly, PKC inhibitors rescued the hippocampal cell proliferation deficits displayed by sleep-deprived animals. These proliferative and antimanic effects were independent, since blockade of cell proliferation did not abolish the antimanic efficacy of PKC inhibitors in the sleep deprivation model. At the same time, we showed that PKC activation had an antidepressant-like effect in naive rats, whereas its inhibition caused a depressive-like phenotype accompanied by a decrease in hippocampal cell proliferation. Taken together, our results demonstrate the involvement of the PKC system in regulating opposite facets of bipolar disorder, and support the hypothesis that an overactivation of the PKC signaling system may be crucial for the deficits of neuroplasticity associated with mania.