Neste estudo procurou-se analisar sobre como se manifesta a aquisição dos tempos verbais do português por falantes de línguas timbira. Tal observação baseou-se em quarenta redações elaboradas por alunos indígenas matriculados no projeto: Uma escola Timbira, realizado pelas Secretarias de Educação do Maranhão e do Tocantins em conjunto com a FUNAI e com o Centro de Trabalho Indigenista (CTI) no ano de 2006. Do corpus analisado, escolheu-se, como objeto de investigação, a aquisição dos tempos verbais da língua portuguesa, visto que as dificuldades de expressão quanto ao presente, passado e ao futuro ocorriam com grande frequência. Como bases teóricas, o Modelo de Análise de Erros (AE) juntamente com o Modelo de Análise Contrastiva (AC) contribuíram para a divisão e a classificação dos desvios de norma padrão da língua portuguesa e para o contraste entre a língua materna e a língua alvo, criando-se as hipóteses desse estudo. Os resultados da pesquisa mostram que muitos desvios de norma padrão de L2 estão intimamente relacionados à transferência de parâmetros de L1 para L2, à substituição errônea de tempos verbais e ao uso de estratégias facilitadoras de referenciação à temporalidade. / The aim of this study is to analyze how the acquisition of Portuguese verb tenses occurs for Timbira speakers. This observation was based on forty essays produced by indigenous students enrolled in the project Uma escola Timbira held by Departamento da Educação of the states of Maranhão and Tocantins in conjunction with FUNAI and Centro de Trabalho Indigenista (CTI) in 2006. As a result of the analysis of the corpus, the acquisition of verb tenses in Portuguese was chosen as the object of this research, since the difficulties of expression for the present, past and future occur with high frequency. As a theoretical basis, the Model of Error Analysis (EA) together with the Model of Contrastive Analysis (CA) contributed to the division and classification of the deviations from the standard Portuguese norm and also to the contrast between the mother tongue and the target language, creating the hypotheses of this study. The research results show that many deviations from the standard L2 are closely related to the transfer of parameters from L1 to L2, the erroneous substitution of tenses and the use of strategies to facilitate temporality reference.

As possibilidades de colocação dos pronomes pessoais átonos em sequências de verbos do espanhol e do português brasileiro não são simétricas: enquanto neste último se verificam menos oportunidades para a chamada subida do clítico, naquele ela é claramente mais frequente. Para descrever tal situação, esta dissertação analisa a configuração de composições verbais, perifrásticas ou não, dos dois sistemas linguísticos, de modo a classificá-las de acordo com seus diferentes níveis de gramaticalização e, a partir daí, com base em determinadas características sintáticas e semânticas relevantes para a problemática do posicionamento dos clíticos nessas estruturas. A seguir, se constata, mediante o exame de alguns exemplos representativos, que a coincidência nos parâmetros anteriores não implica um mesmo padrão quanto aos lugares ocupados pelas formas pronominais átonas junto a cadeias de verbos da língua espanhola e do português do Brasil. Com o objetivo de incluir outros fatores e de encontrar respostas mais completas, se pesquisam, então, novas explicações sobre o fenômeno e essas, por fim, também são debatidas, já que se identifica que nem sempre são suficientes ou totalmente precisas. / The possibilities of positioning atonic pronouns in verbal sequences in Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese are not symmetrical: while in the latter less opportunities for clitic climbing are noted, in the former it is clearly more frequent. To describe this situation, this dissertation analyses the configuration of periphrastical or not periphrastical verbal compositions of the two linguistic systems, in order to classify them according to their different levels of grammaticalization and, from there, based on certain syntactical and semantic characteristics relevant to the question of clitic positioning in those structures. Subsequently, it is evidenced, through the exam of a few representative examples, that the coincidence in previous parameters does not imply the same standard regarding the positions of atonic pronominal forms in verbal chains in the Spanish language and Brazilian Portuguese spoken in Brazil. With the objective of including other factors and finding more complete answers, we research new explanations for that phenomenon, which are finally also debated, since it is identified that not always they are sufficient or totally precise.

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That a link exists between language and culture has long been accepted; however, not only the extent, but also the exact nature of that link remains unclear. In recent years, rhetoricians have raised questions about how culture affects the patterns of organization and other rhetorical features of writing. At present, the search for answers to these questions is made difficult by the cultural bias imposed by the language of any analysis of writing that may be undertaken and by a lack of criteria that can be used in performing such an analysis.

本篇論文的主旨在研究「也」「又」「還」三個連接詞在漢語敘述文中的 篇章功能。過去對於這三個連接詞的研究，多半偏向句法和語意關係的探 討，而事實上，我們還可以從另一個角度來分析這三個連接詞，那就是探 討它們的篇章功能。研究這三個連接詞的篇章功能之前，我們首先根據 Matthiessen 和 Thompson 的模式分析了漢語句群間的凝聚關係(text relations among combined clauses)。 此一分析不僅進一步證明「也」 「又」「還」確實可以作為連接詞使用，同時更清楚地呈現出「也」「又 」「還」所連接的子句之間的關係，以及這些子句本身與其前後子句所形 成的凝聚關係。「也」「又」「還」作連接詞用時，是用來連接一組語意 相關的子句。它們都可以用來表示聯合關係；不過，「也」和「又」還可 以用來表示對照關係。表示聯合關係時，「也」連接二個或二個以上平列 的子句；「又」也是連接平列的子句，然而「又」進一步加強這些子句所 呈現的聯合關係；「還」連接帶有輕重之別的子句。至於如何知道「又」 所加強的是什麼，以及如何決定那個子句比較重，這都得依上下文而定。 表示對照關係時，「也」和「又」都是用來連接二個看似相反，而實質上 卻相輔相成的子句，差別是「又」所連接的二個子句呈現出說話者矛盾的 心理狀態。上文所提出的假設，經由我們分析書寫的語料而獲得驗證。除 此之外，我們還做了一項問卷調查，目的在測試中國人如何使用這三個連 接詞，這項問卷的結果顯示我們的假設大致正確。最後，我們依據語料的 分析及問卷結果的討論，將上文所提的假設做了小幅度的修正，使其更能 明確地說明這三個連接詞的篇章功能。

The object of this study is to analyse the lexemes and phraseological units that constitute the semantic fields employed in naming four abstract domains, greed, thrift, generosity, and extra­vagance that make up the ethical concept <Attitude to Ownership> in German. On the assump­tion that ideas are accessible to us through the lexicalised items of a language, recent theories in the field of semantic analysis and conceptualisation were applied to the source material. In each domain key words were identified and their definitions in modern and historical dictionaries were analysed. Various dimensions of meaning, which proved to be inherent in the lexical items, emerged from this analysis. The oppositions a/o (action directed to others vs. to oneself), right/wrong (virtues vs. vices) and too much/ too little vs. the ideal mean were established as central. To achieve a more precise description of meaning tentative explications of cognitive levels were proposed. By means of these the underlying ideas, as they were reflected in the lexical units, could be described. The analysis showed greater variation and expressivity in words, idioms, and proverbs referring to the two vices compared to the virtues. Furthermore, a diachronic study produced evidence of semantic and conceptual changes. On the basis of such observations conclusions could be drawn about changes in the ethical system. The data derived from a contrastive corpus analysis of the German and Swedish key words showed numerous similarities as well as some conspicuous differences in the conceptualisation and valuation of attitudes pertaining to the four abstract domains. Moreover, the key words denoting the two virtues showed a clear domination in frequency, indicating that these are more central conceptual categories in today's society than the vices. An ongoing shift in meaning could be established for the key words naming the latter. Applying modern theories of metaphor and metonymy the experiential basis of meaning and thought was explored, showing that the structures forming the ethical concepts studied in this work are grounded in experiences of a physical and socio- cultural nature. The metaphorical concept ILLNESS emerged as a common source domain for the two vices, while the PATH- concept was shown to form the basis of metaphors expressing the o-virtue but not the a-virtue. Among the numerous métonymie concepts HAND proved to be a characteristic of all four domains. / digitalisering@umu

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of English

The aim of this thesis is to compare and contrast the ways in which native speakers of Turkish (NST) and native speakers of American English (NSAE) write the acknowledgment sections of their MA and PhD dissertations. The analysis in the study focuses on the pragmatic and discourse strategies used by the authors in the texts written in English. First, the study uncovers the organization of the dissertation acknowledgments and the thanking strategies employed in the acknowledgment sections written in English by native speakers of Turkish and American English in their MA and PhD dissertations. Then, the authors&rsquo / choices of expressions of gratitude for specific addressees (e.g., supervisors vs. friends) are discussed. Data examined in the study comprise 144 dissertations written by 72 NST and 72 NSAE and are collected from sources such as the National Theses Centre of The Council of Higher Education of Turkey, ProQuest dissertation services. The thesis aims to contribute to the areas of foreign language education, pragmatics and cross-cultural communication.

This study examined the use of an intervention, Contrastive Analysis (CA), with fourth-graders’ writing in a Central Appalachian elementary school. The purpose was to improve the use of Standard English in students’ writing in Appalachia by decreasing the number of vernacular features typically used in the writing. The researcher collected data through Consent and Assent Forms, interviews with the fourth-grade teacher, classroom observations and an accompanying CA observation evaluation rubric, pre- and post-writing prompts, selected writings and Writer Self-Perception Scale (WSPS), as well as communication data. Data analysis was accomplished for both the prompts, writing pieces and the WSPS scores. The primary results of the study indicated that the students’ use of vernacular features did in fact decrease after the implementation of CA. An approach that takes into account the vernacular or nonstandard dialect from the home speech of children, CA is utilized to help them perform better in writing in school. The CA approach has been used successfully with African American students primarily in large urban areas. The research results indicate that lessons from CA may be “customized” and used successfully with students who are speakers of Appalachian English. During the eleven-week study, the fourth-grade teacher implemented the intervention and a fifth-grade teacher also led a non-intervention group. A comparative analysis was done to determine whether membership in the fourth grade intervention group was a significant factor in lowering non-standard features in writing. This was a descriptive case study. At the beginning and end of the study, teachers of the fourth- and fifth-grade groups administered pre- and post-tests to their respective groups in the form of writing prompts. The researcher and a second reader did vernacular counts of the writings of both groups. A comparative analysis of the frequency of vernacular features (VFs) in the writing of the fourth-grade group showed decreases greater than the fifth-grade group in three of four categories of vernacular features in writing. The categories were: regularization of past-tense verbs, multiple negation, subject/verb agreement, and pronominal difference. There was only a 1% greater decrease of VFs for the fifth grade in the fourth category. A scale of self-efficacy in writing, the Writer’s Self-Perception Scale (WSPS), was also administered by the teachers pre- and post-study to both groups of students. The difference between the fourth- and fifth-grade pre- and post-WSPS scores was not statistically significant. The findings of the study are important because they show that the use of the CA approach, when used with students from the Appalachian subculture who are speakers of Appalachian English, does make a difference in their rate of usage of Standard English in writing.

The thesis deals with epistemic modality and its realizations in English and Lithuanian. It focuses on the quantitative and qualitative parameters of equivalence between the lexical exponents of epistemic modality in the two languages. The axis of contrast is laid on the auxiliary and adverb strategies (van der Auwera et al. 2005): a probe is made into the cross-linguistic distribution and behavior of the central English modal auxiliaries of possibility and necessity and epistemic stance adverbials as opposed to their counterparts in Lithuanian. It is a contrastive analysis based on the data obtained from a self-compiled bi-directional parallel corpus of fiction texts and their translations into Lithuanian and English. The findings show that, despite the existence of the same adverbial and verb strategies for epistemic meaning realization in the two languages, their implementation differs. Lithuanian shows a significantly higher frequency of adverbials as opposed to English. Due to the high degree of grammaticalization, English usually favors modal auxiliaries for expressing epistemic modality. The findings show that epistemic meaning can be determined by various constraints, the most important of which are complement stativity and subject specification. The analysis of the translational paradigm could suggest that the boundaries between low and high degree of probability can be blurred in Lithuanian. The abundance of inserted modal adverbials and the phenomenon of zero... [to full text] / Disertacijoje tiriamas episteminis modalumas ir jo raiškos priemonės anglų ir lietuvių kalbose. Abiejose kalbose esama įvairių kalbinių priemonių episteminiam modalumui reikšti, tačiau darbe daugiausia dėmesio skiriama episteminį modalumą koduojančių modalinių veiksmažodžių ir modalinių adverbialų bei jų vertimo atitikmenų analizei. Pagrindinis šio darbo tikslas – taikant lygiagrečiųjų ir palyginamųjų tekstynų metodiką aptarti kiekybinius ir kokybinius episteminio modalumo raiškos ekvivalentiškumo parametrus anglų ir lietuvių kalbose. Remiantis van der Auweros et al. (2005) tyrimo modeliu, bandoma nustatyti, kokia episteminio modalumo raiškos strategija – modalinių veiksmažodžių ar adverbialų – vyrauja anglų ir lietuvių kalbose. Tuo tikslu buvo sudarytas dvikalbis dvikryptis paralelusis tekstynas iš grožinės literatūros originalių tekstų ir jų vertimų į lietuvių ir anglų kalbas. Išanalizavus empirinę medžiagą, prieita prie tokių išvadų: episteminio modalumo raiška anglų ir lietuvių kalbose skiriasi. Anglų kalboje dėl palyginti didelės gramatiškėjimo įtakos episteminis modalumas dažniausiai reiškiamas modaliniais veiksmažodžiais, o lietuvių kalboje vyrauja adverbialinė raiškos strategija. Episteminė reikšmė glaudžiai susijusi su veiksmažodžių komplementų ir subjekto specifikacija. Vertimų paradigmų analizė rodo, kad lietuvių kalboje modalinės tikimybės laipsniai skiriami ne taip griežtai ir jos ribos ne tokios ryškios, o praleidimo ir įterpimo atvejai vertime gali būti... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]