AbstractI fokus för detta arbete står frågan om förhållandet mellan de medborgerliga och politiska samt de ekonomiska, sociala och kulturella rättigheterna i relation till diskussionen om den allmänna förklaringen 1948 och världskonferensen om de mänskliga rättigheterna i Wien 1993. Både de teoretiska och praktiska aspekterna av detta förhållande uppmärksammas, till exempel med avseende på definition av rättigheter, deras funktion och så vidare, samt de diskussioner som fördes under formuleringen av den allmänna förklaringen och Wienkonferensen. Särskild vikt läggs vid att förstå dessa diskussioner i det politiska sammanhanget av Öst-Väst konflikten samt Nord-Syd konflikten. / AbstractIn this work, I deal with the relation between civil and political rights on the one hand and the economic, social, and cultural rights on the other hand in relation to the formulation of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) from 1948 and the Vienna Conference on Human Rights in 1993. Both theoretical and practical aspects of the relation between the two sets of rights are discussed, for example with respect to definition and function of rights, and with respect to the discussions taking place at the adoption of the UDHR and the Vienna Conference. Special attention is directed to the political context of the East-West conflict and the North-South conflict.

Världens industrier genomgår en stor förändring. Fler delar av industrins processer automatiserar. Detta påverkar bland annat industrins ekonomi samt dess personal. Syftet med denna rapport är att identifiera hur industrirobotar påverkar företagets ekonomi samt hur företagets personal påverkas. För att genomföra detta har dels information inhämtas från äldre akademiska handlingar. Även fältstudier har genomförts. Litteraturstudien genomfördes först för att införskaffa den kunskap som krävs för att kunna jämföras med den empiriska-/fältstudien. Den empiriska studien bestod av två delar. Del ett består av ett frågeformulär, detta frågeformulär skickades ut till både robottillverkare och industrier som använder industrirobotar. Denna del gjordes för att inhämta mycket data till rapporten. Del två består av tre intervjuer med anställda på företag som arbetar med industrirobotar samt en intervju med en doktorand som forskar om industrirobotar. Denna del genomfördes för att få en mer detaljerad beskrivning av frågeställningarna. Del ett och två har sedan diskuteras för att sedan komma fram till slutsatsen att jobben i industrin påverkas mer positivt än man tidigare befarat. Industrirobotarna räddar dels jobb som annars hade försvunnit, dels gör det möjligt att ta hem produktionen till Sverige och därav generera fler jobb. Ytterligare en slutsats som kunnat konstateras är att den primärt avgörande faktorn för investeringar i industrirobotar är att företaget gynnas ekonomiskt samt att den till största del enbart ses som en bonus att de anställdas arbetsmiljö förbättras. / The world's industries are undergoing a major change. More parts of the industry's processes are automated. This affects, among other things, the industry's finances, and its staff. The purpose of this report is to identify how industrial robots affect the company's finances and how the company's personnel are affected. To implement this, information has been obtained from older academic documents and field studies have been carried out. The literature study was first conducted to acquire the knowledge required to be able to be compared with the empirical / field study. The empirical study consisted of two parts. Part one consists of a questionnaire, this questionnaire was sent out to both robot manufacturers and industries that use industrial robots. This part was done to gather a lot of data for the report. Part two consists of three interviews with employees of companies that work with industrial robots and one interview with a researcher at KTH that focus on industrial robots. This part was carried out to get a more detailed description of the issues. Part one and two have then been discussed to then conclude that jobs in the industry are affected more positively than previously feared. The industrial robots save jobs that would otherwise have disappeared and make it possible to bring production home to Sweden and thereby generate more jobs. Another conclusion that has been established is that the primarily decisive factor for investments in industrial robots is that the company benefits financially and that it is for the most part only seen as a bonus that the employees' working environment is improved.

Urbanization has resulted in larger and more densely populated cities, which has intensified the pressure on public transportation systems globally. A consequence of the increased use of public transportation is higher energy consumption and, consequently, increased carbon dioxide emissions. The electrification of bus services has therefore become a central issue in public transportation, leading many to consider switching from fossil-fuel-powered buses to electric buses. Against this background, this study aims to investigate the benefits and challenges that arise in the transition to electric buses for two selected bus operators and a public transport authority. To address this aim, the authors have conducted semi-structured interviews with the aforementioned parties and gathered a theoretical framework based on scientific articles. The study concludes that there are both benefits and challenges with the transition. In the long term, there are economic savings to be made, and the transition to electric buses also contributes to achieving sustainability goals. Among the challenges are managing the limited range of electric buses and the need to procure in a way that distinguishes between traffic operations and charging infrastructure. / Urbaniseringen har resulterat i större och mer tätbefolkade städer, vilket har intensifierat trycket på kollektivtrafiksystemen globalt. En följd av den ökade användningen av kollektivtrafik är högre energiförbrukning och därmed ökade koldioxidutsläpp. Elektrifiering av busstrafiken har därför blivit en central fråga inom kollektivtrafiken, vilket gör att många överväger att byta från fossildrivna bussar till elbussar. Mot bakgrunden syftar studien till att undersöka de fördelar och utmaningar som uppstår vid övergången till elbussar för två utvalda bussoperatörer och en trafikhuvudman. För att besvara syftet har författarna genomfört semistrukturerade intervjuer med ovan nämnda och samlat en teoretisk referensram baserad på vetenskapliga artiklar. Studien drar slutsatsen att det finns både fördelar och utmaningar med övergången. På lång sikt finns ekonomiska besparingar att göra, och övergången till elbussar bidrar också till att uppnå hållbarhetsmålen. Bland utmaningarna finns hanteringen av elbussarnas begränsade räckvidd samt behovet av att upphandla på ett sätt som skiljer mellan trafikdrift och laddinfrastruktur.

Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka bankernas syn på internkontroll och vidare undersöka vilka mekanismer som används föratt effektivisera den interna kontrollen. Studien riktar sig på attundersöka huruvida visselblåsning används som en av demmekanismerna för att stärka förmågan med att upptäcka ochförhindra oegentligheter av ekonomisk art. Studien använder en induktiv metod för att leda insamlingen avdatamaterial. Vidare använder studien en kvalitativ metod baseradpå intervjuer med fyra olika banker där datamaterialet analyserasmed datamaterialet i kapitel två. Studien visar att det finns en positiv syn på den interna kontrollenoch visselblåsning som mekanism för att skapa en framgångsrikverksamhet. Fastän visselblåsning anses ha en kompliceradfunktion, används den fortfarande för att upptäcka och förhindraoegentligheter, såsom ekonomiska brott. Förutom visselblåsning,använder bankerna mer mekanismer för att stärka och effektiviseraden interna kontrollen. Att uppmana medarbetarna att följa lagaroch principer, utbilda medarbetarna inom olika områden samt attskapa olika arbetarsätt inom verksamheten, att genomföra interntillsyn och ständiga granskningar är en del av de mekanismer somanvänds. / The purpose of the study is to examine the banks view of internalcontrol and further investigate what mechanisms are used tostreamline the internal controls. The study is directed into whetherthe whistle-blowing is used as one of the tools in the internalcontrol to enhance the ability to detect and prevent irregularities ofa financial character. The study use a inductive method to lead the collection of datamaterial. The study further use a qualitative method based on fourinterviews with different banks were this data material is comparedwith existing theories in the second chapter. The study shows that the view of internal control and whistleblowingis positive in the process to create a successful company inthe banks. Despite that the whistle- blowing is known as acomplicated function, it’s still used to detect and preventirregularities of crimes, such of financial character. Except whistleblowing,the banks are using more tools to streamline the internalcontrol. To urge employees to comply laws and other principles,education in different areas for employers but also to createdifferent work approaches in the company, to make internal checkupsand constant supervision of the organization work is some ofthe tools that are used.

Den här rapporten syftar till att undersöka hur upphovspersoner som sysselsätter sig med produktionsmusik identifierar sig med sitt komponerande och arbete, detta med hjälp av de organisationerna som de försörjer sig genom. De två organisationerna är STIM, Svenska Tonsättares Internationella Musikbyrå, eller Epidemic Sound. Skillnaden mellan de två organisationerna är huvudsakligen att hos STIM upplåter upphovspersonerna sitt verk till organisationen och de i sin tur får ansvaret att förvalta verket och samla in ersättning för upphovspersonens räkning, hos Epidemic Sound överlåter upphovspersonerna sitt verk för en engångsersättning. Epidemic Sound äger sedan verket och kan hyra ut musiken till olika produktionsbolag som vill ha musiken i sina produktioner. Till undersökningen har fyra kompositörer från STIM och fyra kompositörer från Epidemic Sound, samt en förläggare och en representant från STIM intervjuats. I rapporten framgår det att de som var anslutna till STIM har jobbat med musik länge, det är nästintill ett “kall” för dem, de ser verken som konstverk mer än som hantverk, de värdesätter upphovsrätten högt och ser ersättningen som en sekundär anledning till varför de sysselsätter sig med komponerandet. De från Epidemic Sound däremot ser sina verk mer som ett hantverk och den mer säkra lönen som går att få av Epidemic Sound är en stor anledning till varför de valt denna organisation. Med hjälp av organisations-, motivations och identitetsteorier har samband funnits mellan teorierna och val av ersättningsmodell. Denna studie påvisar att det skett en förändring på den svenska marknaden för produktionsmusik efter det att Epidemic Sound kom till år 2009. En förändring har skett gällande det institutionaliserade tillvägagångssättet att traditionellt licensera ut sin musik till produktionsbolag. Denna förändring har gett en ny typ av upphovspersoner med en annan arbetsidentitet en möjlighet att kunna försörja sig på sin musik. Detta har kunnat påvisas genom att studera hur upphovspersonerna identifierar sig med sitt arbete och komponerande beroende på vilken av modellerna de använder. / This essay aims to examine how composers who specializes in production music identify themselves with their composing and work, this with help from the organisations that they support themselves through. The two organisations are STIM, The Swedish Composers International Musicbureu, or Epidemic Sound. The difference between the two are mainly that with STIM the composers let them manage the administration and to collect their income with Epidemic Sound is that they sell their righs to Epidemic Sound for a flat-fee. Because of this transaction the composition is now owned by the company and they can rent it out to other production companies who would like to have the music in their productions. To the study four composers from STIM, four composers from Epidemic Sound, one publisher and one representative from STIM have been interviewed. In the report it emerges that the composers that are from STIM have worked with music for a long time, the work is almost like their destiny, they see their compositions as artwork than as a craftmanship, they put big value to the copyright law, and the commission is a secondary reason to why they do what they do. The composers for Epidemic Sound on the other hand see their work more like craftmanship and the more secure salary are the reason why the composers choose Epidemic Sound. With the help from organizational-, motivational- and identitybased theories connections has been made between the theories and revenue model. This study shows that there’s been a change within the swedish market for production music since Epidemic Sound was founded in 2009. A change has occurd regarding the institutionalized approach to traditionally license music to production companies. This change has given a new type of composers with another work identity an opportunity to provide themselves on their music. This has been detected by studying how the composers identify themselves with their work and their composing depending on what revenue model they choose.

The aim with this thesis is to find out how one can understand the exceptions not to introduce the euro as the currency of Denmark and the United Kingdom, as well as their attitude to European integration. It has been implemented in a comparative case study using theories in which the case has been the central focus of the investigation. The theories being used is rational actor model that emphasizes rational decision-making and self-interest. In comparison to that theory has a historical institutional perspective been used, which emphasizes path-dependency and critical events. The focus of the study is the time when the countries became members of the European Economic Community in 1973 to the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 where these exceptions not to introduce the euro as the currency was ratified. In the analysis section, one can see portions of both theories to a varying degree. The conclusions of the study is that both countries show a skeptical attitude to European integration and that the exceptions to not introduce the euro as a currency is based on this critical view of moving power to centralized institutions.

Bakgrund: Fotboll är världens största sport och har en global spridning över hela världen. Den utveckling som fotbollen har genomgått under moderntid har resulterat i att resurser har fått en mer betydelsefull roll i fotbollsklubbar. Fotbollsklubbar fungerar numera som investeringsobjekt för miljardärer som investerar stora ekonomiska resurser i fotbollsklubbarna. En fotbollsklubbs resurser är betydelsefulla men hur mycket påverkar resurserna det sportsliga resultatet? Syfte: Syftet är att förklara hur de allsvenska fotbollsklubbarnas resurser påverkar deras sportsliga resultat. Metod: Den här studien är en kvantitativ studie med en deduktiv ansats. Primärdata bestående av årsredovisningar införskaffades från ekonomiansvarig på respektive fotbollsklubb samt från fotbollsklubbarnas hemsidor. Insamlad data användes för att genomföra statistiska analyser. Slutsats: Studiens resultat påvisar att det finns ett signifikant samband mellan fotbollsklubbarnas ekonomiska resurser och deras sportsliga resultat. Studiens resultat påvisar även ett signifikant samband mellan hur mycket resurser som fotbollsklubbarna spenderar på humankapitalet och deras sportsliga resultat. / Background: Football is the biggest sport in the world and has a global spread throughout the world. The development of football in modern times has evolved into the fact that resources has had an increasing impact on football clubs. Football clubs have become an investment object for billionaires who have invested resources into football clubs. How much does resources affect the sporting success and do the clubs with the most resources have the best sporting results? Purpose: The purpose is to explain how the resources of Swedish football clubs affect their sporting results. Method: This study is a quantitive study with a deductive approach. Data were obtained in the form of annual reports from financial managers at each football club but also from the clubs' websites. The data is used to perform a multivariate regression analysis. Conclusion: The study's result shows that there is a significant correlation between the football clubs' financial resources and sporting results. The result also shows that there is a significant correlation between resources that football clubs settle on human resources and sporting results.

Ett hållbart företagande berör tre olika dimensioner: sociala dimensionerna, ekologiska dimensionerna och de ekonomiska dimensionerna.  För att arbeta mot ett hållbart företagande behöver ett företag kunna balansera dessa tre dimensioner samtidigt. Detta examensarbete syftar till att utifrån ett hållbart företagande undersöka de sociala, ekonomiska och ekologiska dimensionerna för att fastställa Bra miljötekniks befintliga hållbarhetsarbete. Studien analyserar hur de tre hållbarhetsdimensionerna integrerar med varandra. Detta för att få en ökad förståelse kring hur företaget bättre ska kunna anpassa sin verksamhet mot ett hållbart företagande.   För att skapa en djupare förståelse kring ämnet genomfördes en litteraturstudie. Litteraturinsamlingen består av avhandlingar och akademisk litteratur. Studien innehåller kvalitativa intervjuer med en semistrukturerad utformning. Syftet med intervjuerna var att skapa ökad förståelse kring hur företaget arbetar med sina sociala åtaganden. Både en direkt-intervju och en telefonintervju genomfördes.   Sociala aspekter och förhållanden vid företaget undersöks i studien genom en semistrukturerad intervju. De ekonomiska aspekterna undersöks genom viktning av tung lastbil, drivmedel, utsläpp och kostnader. Den ekologiska dimensionen undersöks med hjälp av verktyget livscykelanalys (LCA). Detta verktyg används för att öka förståelsen kring hur företagets aktiviteter påverkar i form av kostnader och miljöavtryck.   I den ekonomiska dimensionen kunde det tydligt utläsas att ingen av investeringarna var relativt stor i jämförelse med företagets resultat. Byte av bränsle till hydrerad vegetabilisk olja är det bästa alternativet taget ur ett perspektiv för hållbart företagande. De sociala dimensionerna undersöktes i form av aktiva val, etik, moral och inställning. Det framgick att stort ansvar har lagts på moderföretaget i Norge där all produktion sker. Inställningen var att; det sköter dem. Slutsatsen blev att företaget saknade kunskap kring vad de sociala dimensionerna innefattar, vilket är inte ovanligt enligt tidigare forskning. De sociala delarna består av mjuka delar och kräver därför en mer demokratisk och öppen process för att utvecklas framgångsrikt.     Att aktivt arbeta med hållbart företagande är resurskrävande för hela organisationen och dess processer. Ständig uppdatering och kontroll är ett måste. Då lönsamhet kan vara svårt att utläsa i ett kortsiktigt perspektiv finns en förståelse för att företag väljer att lägga resurser på annat.   Fördelar när det kommer till arbete med hållbart företagande är att det i det långa loppet genererar både ekonomisk lönsamhet och kompetensutveckling. Dock bör tilläggas att det främsta incitamentet till ett hållbart företagande är att kunna ge framtida generationer förutsättningarna att leva av och på vår planet precis som vi själva gjort. / Sustainable entrepreneurship involves three different dimensions in sustainable development: social dimensions, ecological dimensions and economic dimensions. In order to work towards sustainable entrepreneurship the firm needs to balance these three areas of responsibility simultaneously. This study examines the social, economic and ecological dimensions of sustainable enterprise, based on sustainable entrepreneurship. The study analyses how the three sustainability dimensions integrates with each other in order to gain a better understanding of how to better adapt their business to sustainable entrepreneurship.   In order to obtain a comprehensive base a literature study was first conducted. The literature reviews consists of dissertations and literature studies. The study is also based on qualitative interviews with a semi-structured design. The purpose of the interviews was to get a better understanding of the present social commitment within the firm. Both a direct interview and a telephone interview were conducted.   Social aspects and conditions at the company were examined in the study through a semi-structured interview. In the economic aspects, heavy truck, fuel, emissions and costs for sustainable entrepreneurship were weighted. The ecological dimension is investigated through using the Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) as a tool. When using a LCA a company can get a greater understanding of how their activities affect the environment and where the effect has the most impact.    In the economic dimension, it was clear that none of the investments were relatively large in comparison to the company's earnings. Changing the fuel to HVO is clearly the best option taken from a perspective for sustainable entrepreneurship. The social dimensions were examined in terms of active choices, ethics, morals and attitude. It was very clear that great responsibility lies with the mother-company in Norway where all production takes place. The company lacked knowledge in how to affect the social dimensions and what they included. The social dimensions consist of many soft parts, a more democratic and open process is needed to create a successful result.   Working actively with sustainable entrepreneurship is demanding resources for the entire organization and its processes, as well as continuous updating and control. Since profitability in numbers can be difficult to read in a short-term perspective many companies choose to put resources on other things.    Advantages for organizations that work with sustainable entrepreneurship are that it generates both economic profitability and competence development in a long-term perspective. But most importantly, future generations must be given the conditions to live on and off our planet just as we did.

This dissertation is devoted to the analysis of various aspects of inefficiency in the political economy. It consists of four self-containing theoretical essays. The first two chapters deal with the interplay between inefficiency and commitment. Chapter 1 studies the problem of commitment in autocratic regimes and its implications for growth. Chapter 2 argues that the absence of commitment undermines the validity of the Coase theorem. The next two chapters address alternative sources of inefficiency, abstracting from commitment-related problems. Chapter 3 discusses inefficiencies arising in organizations whose members possess veto power and suggests a way of mitigating the problem. Finally, Chapter 4 analyzes the impact of demand linkages on the efficiency of lobbying for trade policy. Chapter 1. “Autocracy, Devolution and Growth” Some autocracies have sustained high economic growth for many decades; others have stagnated at low levels of production. Paradoxically, the stagnating autocracies appear to possess more natural resources and be more resistant to political change than the growing autocracies. The paper argues that the scope for capital accumulation and growth in an autocracy is largely determined by the autocrat's incentive to cling to power. The main result of the paper is that there will be private capital accumulation only if the autocrat’s benefits from political control are not too high. The reason is that, as capital accumulates and growth slows down, the autocrat faces an increasing temptation to expropriate the capitalists. Since expropriation eliminates growth, the autocrat may voluntarily refrain from expropriating if future growth is sufficiently large; otherwise, the temptation to expropriate can only be resisted through a credible commitment, that is, by devolving some political power. For autocrats with large benefits of control, for example valuable natural resource rents, devolution of power may always be unattractive. As a result, capitalists realize that they will eventually be expropriated, and capital accumulation therefore never starts. On the other hand, autocrats with small resource rents will eventually devolve power, since this commitment is necessary to sustain growth. Therefore, capitalists are willing to start accumulating despite the autocratic regime. In other words, autocracies are vulnerable to the resource curse.   Chapter 2. “The Coase Theorem Is False” (with Tore Ellingsen) The paper provides simple and robust counterexamples to the Coase Theorem. More precisely, we show that equilibrium investments in club goods can be suboptimally small despite the presence of well-defined and perfectly protected property rights and the absence of transaction costs and informational asymmetries. The reason is that, in equilibrium, a club of owners will typically not exercise their right to exclude outsiders, preferring instead to exercise their right to sell access. As long as the club of owners does not have all the bargaining power in such ex post access negotiations, strategic non-membership provides a valuable free-riding opportunity. Chapter 3. “Club-in-the-Club: Reform under Unanimity” (with Erik Berglöf, Mike Burkart and Guido Friebel) In many organizations, decisions are taken by unanimity. We analyze a model of an organization in which members with heterogeneous productivity privately contribute to a common good. Under unanimity, the least efficient member imposes her preferred effort choice on the entire organization. In the presence of externalities and an incomplete charter, the threat of forming an “inner organization” can undermine the veto power of the less efficient members and coerce them to exert more effort. We identify the conditions under which the threat of forming an inner organization is never executed, and under which inner organizations are equilibrium outcomes, and provide a rationale for the diversity of decision rules. Chapter 4. “Protection for Sale to Oligopolists” This paper modifies Grossman and Helpman’s "Protection for Sale" model by allowing demand linkages and oligopolistic competition. It shows that increased substitutability between products weakens interest groups’ incentives to lobby. For the case of two industries it obtains a particularly simple result: the protection of the organized industry’s product falls, whereas the protection of the unorganized industry’s product increases with product substitutability. The model suggests that empirical studies of the "Protection for Sale" may overstate the lobby groups’ desire for protection. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2006

This study deals with the relationship between communications networks and economic structure in medium-sized Swedish towns 1850-1970. Medium-sized towns have been defined as those which were ranked 4th-20th in terms of population at two points in time: in the year 1900, when industry had established a foothold and the most important railways had been built, and in the year 1970, at the end of the period studied. This means that the group studied comprises 22 towns. The communications networks which are examined are shipping, railways and roads. The economic structure is studied at various levels from economic sectors to sub-branches.Two measures have been constructed for the purpose of establishing the positions of the towns in the communications networks: accessibility and nodality. The former is calculated on the basis of distance from other towns and their populations. The latter is computed via quantification of the towns' access to the links of the respective networks and an assessment of the quality of these.Statistical relation analyses of correlation and regression type have been the principal method of analysis, which has been supplemented, however, by information culled from urban monographs and other studies.The study shows that there is a relationship between communications networks, primarily the railways, and the transformation of the towns' economic structures during the first half of the period studied. The predominant alignment of this relationship appears to be that the structural transformation precedes the expansion of the railways. Among the various economic sectors, the relationship between industry and the railways is the clearest. The relationship changes direction with the passage of time and can be divided into four phases:1.1850s - 1870s. The towns with strongest population and industrial growth attract railways to themselves and are themselves most active in expanding the railways. A weak correlation between accessibility of towns in the shipping network and industry dwindles away when the railways begin to expand.2.1870s - 1900. The relationship between industry and railways is two-way.3. 1900-1950.The building of the most important railways is completed. Industry continues to adapt to accessibility within the railway network.4.After 1950. The medium-sized towns begin to be deindustrialised as the service sector undergoes vigorous growth. The correlation between industry and railways weakens.On the other hand a supplementary study of conditions at regional level shows that railway expansion preceded structural change. In the rural parts of Sweden the railways were an important driving force behind urbanisation and industrialisation, and they created a special type of new population centre -"station villages", as they were called - which came to function as industrial focal points in the countryside. Many of these station villages rose to the status of towns later on.At lower levels of the economic structure the relationships between economic activities and communications networks are not statistically guaranteed as a rule. This is interpreted to mean that at first it was only large aggregates such as population density and total industry that were capable of influencing railway expansion. In similar fashion the railways later became a factor exercising influence primarily at the macro level, while at the micro level they formed only a base on which a number of other location factors were collected and evaluated before the individual firms reached their decisions. / digitalisering@umu