This thesis aims to examine the question of freedom in its relation to political authority in social contract theories of Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). In order to do that, discussions on human nature, evolution into political association and the foundations of legitimate governments are focused on. As the social contract theories of Hobbes and Rousseau mainly seek for rational justification of political obligation, the primary aim of this thesis is to analyze the nature of political obligation in order to discuss the relation between subject and sovereign in the framework of freedom.

This essay focus on Jean-Jacques Rousseau and David Hume and how they in their writings describe the doctrine of the original sin, and what they replace it with. The theoretical framework this essay work form, is Peter. L Bergers theories concerning society and religion as a social construction, were religious systems purpose is to establish order and previewed a meaning for people. From a history point of view religious system and institutions have had a significant role in establish system that will provide people with explanations about the world. In the eighteenth century, during the period in Europe often named as the enlightenment a new sort of criticism took place against religion. My study shows that in the part of Rousseau’s work Émile that goes under the name The Savoy priest's confession the doctrine of the original sin, is replaced with a faith in the human nature. Doctrines such as the original sin is for Rousseau something that is formed by humans in society, and has nothing to do with God. In the second part of Hume’s work Dialogues concerning natural religion, the dialogue shifts and focus on more moral concepts of religion, and also the question of evil, sin etc. Hume’s work presents three solutions instead of one.

A presente tese tem o objetivo de analisar como Rousseau propõe uma educação moral a partir da crítica à civilização. Quando o filósofo faz essa crítica e, consequentente, denuncia a educação da sua época, ele reivindica uma reformulação dos métodos e princípios sob os quais estavam alicerçados as instituições. A crítica apresentar-se-ia como a forma de desmascarar a situação de corrupção desencadeada por uma educação insensata que conduz de modo pernicioso a formação da juventude. O fato de questionar uma forma de ensino pautado unicamente na instrução não quer dizer que a pedagogia rousseauniana descarte a sua importância, pelo contrário, o objeto de discussão é a ênfase nessa instrução, negligenciando a dimensão moral no processo de formação do homem. Como preparar o homem para a vida em sociedade mediante uma educação da natureza? Compreender como é possível educar na corrupção apresenta-se como o problema que norteia esse estudo. Faremos a exegese de algumas de suas obras como, por exemplo, Emílio ou da Educação, Júlia ou a Nova Heloïsa, Contrato Social, Carta a Beaumont, para encontrar uma coerência no tocante à proposta de uma educação moral capaz de formar o homem para lidar com os elementos corruptores próprios da vida civilizada. Uma educação que aproxime o homem da natureza, permitindo que o mesmo atue de forma efetiva na sociedade, revela-se como mais um dos paradoxos de Rousseau: o da educação. Diante dessas considerações, a educação sensata é a possibilidade de formação de um ser capaz de bem conduzir-se em sociedade, orientando-se através dos preceitos da natureza. / This thesis aims to analyse how Rousseau proposes a moral education from the critique of civilization. When the philosopher makes this critique and thus denounces the education of his time, he claims a reformulation of the methods and principles upon which the institutions were grounded. The critique would be present as the way to expose the corruption situation triggered by a senseless education so pernicious that leads to formation of youth. That question a form of teaching based only on the institution does not mean that pedagogy Rousseau discard its importance, however, the subject of discussion is the emphasis in this statement, neglecting the moral dimension in the process of formation of man. How to prepare man for life in society through an education of nature? Understanding how can educate in the corruption is presented as the problem that guides our study. We will do exegesis of some of his works, for example, Emile or on Education, Julie or the New Heloïsa, Social Contract, Letter a Beaumont, to find consistency on the proposal of a moral education that can form the man to deal with the elements of civilizaed life corrupters own. An education that brings man to nature, allowing human being acts effectively in society, it is revealed as another of the paradoxes of Rousseau: the education. Given these considerations, education is a sensible possibility formation of a being able to behave well in society, guided by the precepts of nature.

Les palimpsestes poétiques de Johann Jakob Bodmer (1698–1783) se caractérisent incontestablement par des dialogues socratiques et ironiques. À un moment de l’histoire des sciences et de la critique, les parodies littéraires et les satires polémiques confirmèrent la position de l’auteur zurichois dans la querelle littéraire allemande ce que ma thèse met à jour. Le programme rationaliste des réformes éducatives qui se profilait dans ces fictions innovatrices de critique littéraire, est mon premier axe d’étude. À quel point la pédagogie de Rousseau, basée sur un modèle d’ « éducation négative », pouvait être considérée comme un dispositif du programme pédagogique et politique de Bodmer est un deuxième axe d’étude.Le choix des textes prend en compte toute une gamme de pratiques diverses et variées de la parodie et de la satire. En se fondant sur une analyse exemplaire du démontage des adversaires, les relations de la critique, c’est-à-dire les relations et mouvements de la poésie, se dévoilent. Nous avons utilisé une méthode comparatiste pour l’analyse des palimpsestes de Bodmer ; cette enquête s’est fondée sur les approches de l’intertextualité et du dialogue en rapport avec la notion dialectique de Jean Starobinski (*1920) ainsi que sur les théories de l’esthétique de la réception de l’École de Constance. / Certainly the poetic palimpsests of Johann Jakob Bodmer (1698–1783) are characterised by Socratic and ironic dialogues. At a certain point in the history of sciences and of critics and as my thesis demonstrates, the literary parodies as well as polemic satires confirmed Bodmer's point of view with reference to the German literary dispute. One axis of my investigation was the rationalistic programme of educational reforms, which profiled those innovative fictions of literary criticism. Another axis, examined at what point the pedagogy of Rousseau, based on the model of a "negative education" could possibly be an instrument for Bodmer's pedagogic and political programme. My choice of texts and works took a whole series of genres into consideration all of which make use of the different styles and variations of parody and satire. Based on an exemplary analysis of the adversaries’ dismantlement, the critical interactions, meaning the movements of poetry are becoming visible. In order to be able to analyse the poetic palimpsests of Bodmer, a comparing method has been instrumentalized. This method is based on intertextual and dialogue approaches with reference to the dialectical notion of Jean Starobinski (*1920) as well as the theories of the reader-response criticism of the School of Constance.

This essay compares the theory of human rights and human responsibility to the reality in the Swedish government. The aim is to understand what the            philosophers in this case study are saying about human rights and responsibility. The essay also asks how the philosopher’s theories compare to the reality in the Swedish State.  When comparing the theory of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Robert Nozick to the Swedish government and laws we understand that Rousseau is the most conservative and yet the one out of the three philosophers that are closest to  Swedish State reality. Locke is not very different from Rousseau and a lot of how the Swedish State works is compatible whit his thoughts. Nozick, being the one that is most liberal, is then the one that has ideas that are most different from the Swedish State 2021 even though Sweden is known to be one of the most liberal and equal states in the world.

The significance of this opera, Le Devin du Village, lies not in the fact that it is great music, but in the fact of its historical importance. Its appearance in 1752, with its revolutionary ideas, heralds the coming of what we consider today as native French comic opera; i. e., native in the sense that it is composed by Frenchmen, although adapted from the Italian style in many respects. Another claim of uniqueness that might be made for this work is that its composer was no recognized musician, but one of the greatest pre-Revolution philosophers. His open-minded ness and eagerness to break loose the bonds of the traditional French "Chauvinism" and musical isolationism, brought forth this musical effort on his part, clothed in native atmosphere, yet embodying the spirit of Italian music. From the private library of Isaac Lloyd Hibberd, the writer was fortunate in having access to a first edition of Le Devin du Village, which has added greatly to an appreciable understanding of the music of this work.

Thème central des débats du XVIIIe siècle sur les fondements de la sociabilité humaine et sur les sources du Moi, la compassion est aussi l’un des sentiments les plus analysés par Leopardi dans son journal philosophique, le Zibaldone. Or, plus que tout autre siècle ou tradition, le XVIIIe siècle marque de son empreinte l’étude léopardienne des passions humaines. La doctrine de la compassion de Leopardi subit-elle aussi cette influence ? Quelle place occupe Leopardi dans l’histoire moderne des théories philosophiques de la compassion ? Se situe-t-il du côté des défenseurs de la compassion, exemplairement représentés par Rousseau, ou du côté de ses nombreux adversaires ? Après un premier chapitre introductif sur le contexte où prend forme le nouveau paradigme moral et lexical du XVIIIe siècle, cette recherche aborde les grandes questions rencontrées par Leopardi dans son analyse de la compassion : la nature énigmatique de ce sentiment ; ses principes et ses composantes ; les conditions psycho-physiques des différentes catégories de personnes qui sont prédisposées ou non à éprouver ce sentiment ; les objets « pitoyables » ainsi que les états d’âme et les moments de la vie qui favorisent davantage l’apparition de ce sentiment. Enfin, le dernier chapitre ouvre une perspective sur la dernière forme de compassion envisagée par Leopardi : la compassion universelle. Ce travail souhaite ainsi souligner les nuances de la théorie et de l’expérience du sentiment de la compassion chez Leopardi, en montrant la complexité d’une analyse toujours en tension entre anthropologie et morale, ontologie et phénoménologie, philosophie et poésie. / Compassion, at the center of the Enlightenment debate on the fundamentals of sociability and human nature, is perhaps one of the most analyzed feelings in Leopardi’s Zibaldone. Enlightenment contributed, more than any other tradition, to the shaping of Leopardi’s thought, and surely contributed to his interest in passions and human nature. Hence, can we say that it also influenced his examination of compassion ? What is the place of Leopardi within the modern history of the philosophical theories of compassion ? Does he stand with its defenders, whose main champion is Rousseau, or rather with its many opponents ?After an introductory chapter outlining the context in which the new moral and lexical paradigm of the Enlightenment develops, this study explores the topics examined by Leopardi in his analysis of compassion : the enigmatic nature of this feeling, its principles and elements ; the psychophysical conditions of different categories of people who are predisposed, in different degrees, to feel compassion ; the objects that move compassion ; the different moods and stages of life in which one is more inclined to compassion. Finally, the last chapter presents the ultimate form of compassion in Leopardi : the universal compassion. The main goal of this research is therefore to illustrate the diverse facets of the theory and experience of compassion in Leopardi, and to show the complexity of his analysis, which is constantly in between anthropology and morals, ontology and phenomenology, philosophy and poetry. / Al centro del dibattito illuministico sui fondamenti della sociabilità e della natura umana, la compassione è forse uno dei sentimenti più analizzati nello Zibaldone di Leopardi. Più di ogni altro secolo e di ogni altra tradizione, quella illuministica ha contribuito alla formazione del pensiero di Leopardi, influenzandone soprattutto l’interesse verso le passioni e la natura umana. Si può dire che questa tradizione abbia inciso anche sull’analisi leopardiana della compassione ? Qual è il posto di Leopardi nella storia moderna delle teorie filosofiche della compassione ? Si schiera con i suoi difensori, di cui il rappresentante principale è Rousseau, o con i suoi numerosi avversari ?Dopo un primo capitolo introduttivo sul contesto in cui prende forma il nuovo paradigma morale e lessicale dell’illuminismo, questa ricerca affronta le tematiche incontrate da Leopardi nella sua analisi della compassione : dalla natura enigmatica di questo sentimento ai princìpi e componenti ; dalle condizioni psicofisiche delle diverse categorie di persone che sono più o meno predisposte a provare compassione, agli oggetti “compassionevoli” ; dagli stati d’animo ai momenti della vita in cui si è più inclini a provare questo sentimento. Infine, l’ultimo capitolo offre uno scorcio sull’ultima forma di compassione leopardiana : la compassione universale. Questo lavoro intende così mettere in luce le numerose sfaccettature della teoria e dell’esperienza della compassione in Leopardi, mostrando la complessità di un’analisi sempre in tensione tra antropologia e morale, ontologia e fenomenologia, filosofia e poesia.

Diploma thesis "Kant's Categorical Imperative and Its Critique by Nineteenth Century Philosophers" deals with a question of Kant's fundamental principle known as the Categorical Imperative or Moral Law. The aim of this work is at first to discuss two other moral principles because of their great impact on Kant seeking the moral principle. These are Hume's moral code called Moral sense and Rousseau' moral views relating to the freedom of individuals. Secondly, to find out how both moral theories did inspire Immanuel Kant. It is necessary to explain strengths of Kant's Formula of the Categorical Imperative especially to emphasise its objectivity and universality. Then the purpose is to show Kant's influence on moral thinking in the nineteenth century. It is necessary to mention philosophers such as Johan Gottlieb Fichte and Bernard Bolzano who focused on critique of the Categorical Imperative.

The modern nation-state is the product of a gradual process in which the religiously concerned medieval political and ecclesiastical synthesis became more secular and centralized. Mirroring this external institutional development, the theoretical conception of the state changed from one of a natural organic unity of diverse corporate members to a consent-based compact among atomized individuals. This change can be traced in the Body Politic metaphor of four authors: John of Salisbury, Christine de Pizan, Johannes Althusius, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In this project, I argue that the Body Politic metaphor, particularly the inclusion or exclusion of a soul of the Body Politic, is uniquely appropriate for capturing the complexity of political life in general across differing levels of aggregation and for elucidating the political and religious commitments of the authors who employ it, as they critique their own contemporary political and religious institutions and describe their ideal societies. In the conclusion, I suggest that the loss of a strongly organic conception of the state has denied modern society and political theory a well established means for incorporating corporate entities and for explaining the existence of the modern nation-state in any kind of transcendental moral context, thus the lost soul of the Body Politic.

Although two hundred years separate Jane Austen and Helen Fielding and, subsequently, also their portrayals of society, the similarities outweigh the differences. When juxtaposing Pride and Prejudice and Bridget Jones’s Diary in the light of feminism it is evident that both books provide clear examples of the prevailing situation of women in each time and place. The aspects of the study, which are especially important today, show both the development and some degree of stagnation of women’s rights and identities.