J. S. Mill a été l’une des cibles privilégiées de toute une littérature critique dénonçant la prétention de l’économie à l’universalité, c’est-à-dire à établir des lois naturelles. Parmi ces critiques, on peut déceler deux angles d’attaque différents : celui d’auteurs qui, comme Durkheim, Veblen ou Schmoller, fustigent la prétention de l’économie à réduire l’homme à un homo œconomicus, et par suite à faire l’apologie du « laissez-faire » ; celui de Marx qui dénonce le caractère naturalisant de la propriété privée capitaliste dans le discours économique. Pourtant, en examinant de près les textes épistémologiques de Mill, nous montrons que ce dernier se trouve justement être l’avocat – et par anticipation – de ses critiques. Toutefois, rien ne garantit que Mill dise tout le vrai sur sa propre pratique d’économiste. Or, nous dévoilons que certains de ses écrits économiques présentent bien une forme d’universalité, n’étant pas uniquement valables dans les économies de marchés capitalistes. / J. S. Mill was one of the main targets of a whole critical literature denouncing the pretention of economics to universality, that is to say, to establish natural laws. Among the criticisms one can detect two different angles of attack: that of authors such as Durkheim, Veblen or Schmoller who criticize the claim of political economy to reduce man to a mere homo œconomicus, and consequently to glorify “laissez-faire”; that of Marx who castigates the naturalizing character of capitalist private property in the economic discourse. However, by closely examining Mill’s epistemological texts, we show that this author just happens to be the advocate of his own critics. However, there is no guarantee that Mill says all the truth about his own practice as an economist. Now, we demonstrate that some of his economic writings present indeed a form of universality, in as much as they are not only valid in capitalist market economies.

Syftet med studien är att undersöka och bidra med kunskap om ledarskapets påverkan på medarbetarnas inre och yttre motivation i provisionsbaserade arbetsmiljöer. En kvalitativ forskningsansats med ett abduktiv angreppssätt har tillämpats i detta arbete. Nio semi-strukturerade intervjuer med medarbetare har genomförts. Studien visar att ledarskapet har påverkan på både inre och yttre motivation, samt att varje ledarskapsstil påverkar medarbetarnas motivation i viss utsträckning. Studien visar även att inre motivation är mer beständig samt att det transformativa ledarskapet genererar motivation i störst utsträckning hos medarbetare i provisionsbaserade arbetsmiljöer. / The purpose of the study is to examine and contribute knowledge about the impact of leadership on employees' intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in commission-based work environments. A qualitative research approach with an abductive approach has been applied in this study. Nine semi-structured interviews with employees have been conducted. The study demonstrates that leadership has an impact on both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and that each leadership style affects employee motivation to some extent. The study also reveals that intrinsic motivation is more enduring, and that transformative leadership generates motivation to a greater extent among employees in commission-based work environments.

Studien har som syfte att undersöka hur framgångsrika ledare framställs idag och till vilken utsträckning samt i vilka situationer de brukar ett auktoritärt ledarskap. För att uppfylla studiens syfte har dagsaktuella ledarskapstrender samt fiktiva ledare i aktuell populärkultur analyserats genom en kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultatet visar att vissa egenskaper är gemensamma hos framgångsrika ledare i såväl trender som hos fiktiva ledare. Det råder delade meningar samt avsaknad av en nyanserad förklaring av vad som är ett auktoritärt ledarskap. Genom att sätta ihop en samlad bild av ett auktoritärt ledarskap går det att urskilja hur vissa situationer efterfrågar och förväntar ett auktoritärt ledarskap. / The purpose of this study is to examine how successful leaders are portrayed today and to what extent as well in which situations they practice authoritarian leadership. To fulfill the purpose of the study have current leadership trends and fictitious leaders in recent popular culture been analyzed through a qualitative content analysis. The results indicate that some characteristics are mutual for successful leaders in trends as well as fictitious leaders. There is a disagreement and a lack of nuanced definition of an authoritarian leadership. Creating a collective definition of an authoritarian leadership makes it possible to discern how certain situations demand and expect authoritarian leadership.

In all workplaces there are some type of a leader, a leader who in some way must guide and drive the work-group towards success. Today, there is a lot of research into what drives the employee forward and creates motivation. Research that is harder to find on the other hand is how the actual managers work about creating motivation and what their own view is of their leadership.   The purpose of this study is to fill that knowledge gap by finding out how managers view their own leadership, what view they have of their employees and how they feel they work with motivating their work group. In order to find out, a qualitative study of eight interviews with managers of different levels in the industrial sector was carried out, based on McGregor's theory X and Y, in Lewin's three leadership styles; authoritarian, democratic and let-go and in self-determination theory. In the study, the focus has been on the managers' perspective, which gives a subjective picture based on the respondents in the study's perspective.   The results of the study showed that the managers view their employees based on Theory Y, which means that they see people as voluntary workers and that people have the ability to make their own decisions. How the leadership styles could be applied to the managers was not as clear as there were elements of both the authoritarian and the let-go leadership style, but it turned out that the democratic leadership style was dominant among the managers. Finally, it could be stated that managers use both internal and external motivational factors to motivate their work group. Based on their motivation exercise, however, the managers show that it is the inner motivational factors that the greatest focus is on in order to achieve a high level of motivation. / På alla arbetsplatser finns det någon typ av ledare, en ledare som på något sätt ska vägleda och driva arbetsgruppen mot framgång. Idag finns det en hel del forskning på vad som driver medarbetaren framåt och skapar motivation. Forskning som är svårare att hitta är däremot hur cheferna går till väga för att skapa motivation och vad deras egen syn är på sitt ledarskap. Denna studies syfte är att fylla den kunskapsluckan genom att ta reda på hur chefer ser på sitt eget ledarskap, vilket synsätt de har på sina anställda och hur de upplever att de går till väga för att motivera sin arbetsgrupp. För att kunna ta reda på detta genomfördes en kvalitativ studie på åtta intervjuer med chefer av olika nivåer inom industrisektorn. Detta med grund i McGregors teori X och Y, i Lewins tre ledarskapsstilar; auktoritär, demokratisk och låt-gå och i självbestämmandeteorin. I studien har fokus legat på chefernas perspektiv, vilket ger en subjektiv bild utifrån respondenterna i studiens perspektiv. Resultatet i studien visade att cheferna ser på sina anställda utifrån Teori Y, vilket innebär att de ser människan som frivilligt arbetande och att människan besitter förmågan att ta egna beslut. Hur ledarskapsstilarna kunde appliceras på cheferna var inte lika tydligt då det fanns inslag av både den auktoritära-och låt-gå-ledarskapsstilen, men det visade sig att den demokratiska ledarskapsstilen var dominerande hos cheferna. Slutligen kunde man konstatera att chefer använder sig både av inre och yttre motivationsfaktorer för att motivera sin arbetsgrupp. Utifrån deras motivationsutövande visar dock cheferna att det är de inre motivationsfaktorerna som störst fokus ligger på för att uppnå en hög motivationsnivå.

Worsened working conditions seems to be one of the main reasons for ill health in Sweden. Within the energy industry there are serious work environment risks that can lead to fatal accidents, several fatal accidents have occurred in the industry during the last year. A leadership that promotes a high level of safety climate can prevent accidents. At the same time, there is a lack of studies on different leadership styles and how they can affect the safety climate within the energy industry in Sweden.The purpose of the study was to analyze the relationship between leadership and safety climate, among workers at an environmental and energy company. The study was based on a quantitative approach. Correlations were analyzed between leadership styles and safety climate in bivariate- and multiple logistic regressions. The analyzed leadership styles were transformational, transactional, and Laissez-Faire leadership. In addition, safety-specific leadership was analyzed. The result showed that the safety climate at the environmental and energy company was at a high level. The analysis showed that transformational and transactional leadership styles, including safety-specific leadership, were correlated to safety climate. At the same time, the result showed that the correlation between Laissez-Faire leadership style and safety climate was most important for the safety climate outcome. When leadership was characterized by Laissez-Faire, the odds increased that the safety climate would be at a lower level. The conclusions were that the most important leadership style to focus on and avoid was Laissez-Faire leadership. Since the environmental and energy company had a high level of safety climate it is probably a good starting point for future continued development for safety and proactive work environment management.Recommendations to educate leaders about how leadership behavior can affect the safety climate, based on this study's result, were suggested since it could be a cost-effective and efficient method to improve the safety climate. / Dåliga arbetsförhållanden tycks vara en av de främsta orsakerna till ohälsa och att människor dör på arbetet i Sverige. Inom energibranschen finns allvarliga arbetsmiljörisker som kan leda till dödsolyckor, flera dödsolyckor har inträffat i branschen under det senaste året. Ett ledarskap som främjar ett högt säkerhetsklimat kan förebygga olyckor. Samtidigt saknas det studier om olika ledarskapsstilar och hur det kan påverka säkerhetsklimatet inom energibranschen i Sverige. Syftet med studien var att analysera sambandet mellan ledarskap och säkerhetsklimat, bland arbetare på ett miljö- och energiföretag. Studien baserades på en kvantitativ ansats. Samband analyserades mellan olika ledarskapsstilar och säkerhetsklimat genom binära och multipla logistiska regressioner. De ledarskapsstilar som analyserades var transformativt-, transaktionellt- och Laissez- Faire ledarskap. Dessutom analyserades säkerhetsspecifikt ledarskap. Resultatet visade att säkerhetsklimatet på miljö- och energibolaget var på en hög nivå. Analysen visade att transformella och transaktionella ledarskapsstilar, inklusive säkerhetsspecifikt ledarskap, korrelerade till säkerhetsklimatet. Samtidigt visade resultatet att sambandet mellan Laissez-Faire ledarskapsstil och säkerhetsklimat hade störst betydelse för säkerhetsklimatet. När ledarskapet präglades av Laissez-Faire ökade oddsen att säkerhetsklimatet skulle vara på en lägre nivå. Slutsatserna var att den viktigaste ledarstilen att fokusera på, och att undvika, var Laissez-Faire ledarskap. Eftersom miljö- och energibolaget hade ett högt säkerhetsklimat är det sannolikt en bra utgångspunkt för framtida fortsatt utveckling för säkerhet och för proaktivt arbetsmiljöarbete. Rekommendationer om att utbilda ledare om hur ledarskapsbeteenden kan påverka säkerhetsklimatet, baserat på den här studiens resultat, föreslogs eftersom det kan vara en kostnadseffektiv och framgångsrik metod för att förbättra säkerhetsklimatet.

Empirical evidence suggests that transformational leadership is positively correlated with job satisfaction, job performance, organizational commitment, and survivability. Although transformational leadership has been implemented in various organizations, little research has examined the issues in implementing transformational leadership concepts within a scientific laboratory. The purpose of this exploratory, qualitative case study was to examine (a) the current leadership style of the president of a scientific laboratory from the scientists', analysts', and technicians' perspective and their preferred leadership style; (b) the president's self-perceived leadership style and perceived subordinate style preference; and (c) the employees' perceptions of advantages and challenges to applying and implementing a transformational style of leadership. The laissez-faire, transactional, and transformational leadership models of Avolio, Bass, Burns, and Kouzes and Posner provided the theoretical basis for the case study. Data were collected from the president and subordinates and responses were coded and classified according to patterns and emerging themes. Results indicated that the president's current leadership style was transactional, whereas the subordinates' preference was transformational. The president's self-assessment of current style and perceived subordinate preference was found to be transformational. Subordinates expressed ideal and effective leadership qualities and shared advantages and barriers to transformational leadership. Leaders in scientific laboratories who apply these findings and implement more effective leadership may impact social change through increased subordinate job satisfaction and performance, thereby enhancing organizational survivability and improving the status quo.

The purpose of this study was to examine the leadership style that is preferred by the employees from a psychosocial- and productive perspective. The study is based on Lewin et al´s research on the three leadership styles authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire leader. This is a quantitative study with a questionnaires as data collection method. The sample consisted of individuals working in a municipality in one nursing unit. The data from the survey were analyzed by three separate one-way depending ANOVA in IBM statistics SPSS 22. As the leadership groups were compared with each other, the results showed, just as previous research, that the democratic leadership style was most preferable from both psychosocial and productivity perspective. The study is based on three hypotheses, hypotheses 1 and 3 was confirmed by the results while hypothesis 2 was rejected. Employees prefer a leadership style that promotes participation and collaboration that creates a foundation to work independently. / Syftet med studien var att undersöka vilken ledarstil som är önskvärd av medarbetarna ur ett psykosocialt- och produktivt perspektiv. Studien baseras på Lewin et al´s forskning om de tre ledarstilarna auktoritär, demokratisk samt låt-gå ledaren. Detta är en kvantitativ studie med enkäter som datainsamlingsmetod. Urvalet bestod av individer som arbetar på en kommun inom omvårdnadenheten. Datat från enkäten analyserades genom tre separata envägs-beroende ANOVA i IBM statistics SPSS 22. Då ledarstilsgrupperna jämfördes med varandra visade de på, precis som tidigare forskning, att den demokratiska ledarstilen var mest önskvärd ur både psykosocialt och produktivitetsperspektiv. Studien baseras på tre hypoteser, hypotes 1 och 3 bekräftades genom resultatet medan hypotes 2 förkastades. Medarbetarna föredrar en ledarstil som förespråkar delaktighet och samverkan som skapar en grund och trygghet för ett självständigt arbete.

Syftet med föreliggande studie var att inom idrottskontexten studera samband mellan idrottares upplevelser av de olika ledarskapsstilarna (1) transformativt, (2) konventionellt och (3) låt-gå med olika motivationsinriktningar inom Självbestämmandeteorin (SDT). I studien deltog 117 handbolls- och fotbollsspelare i åldrarna 16-33 år (M = 19.17, SD = 3.61). Deltagarna besvarade enkäter bestående av Sport Motivation Scale-II (SMS-II) för att mäta motivationsinriktning, Transformational Teaching Questionnaire (TTQ) för att mäta upplevt transformativt ledarskap samt delar av Developmental Leadership Questionnaire (DLQ) vilket avsåg att mäta upplevt konventionellt ledarskap och låt-gå ledarskap. Resultaten visade att det fanns statistiskt signifikant samband mellan upplevt transformativt ledarskap och inre motivation samt yttre självbestämmande motivation (identifierad reglering och integrerad reglering). Vidare visades att det fanns statistiskt signifikant samband mellan upplevt konventionellt ledarskap och ickesjälvbestämmande motivation (extern reglering och introjicerad reglering). Inget signifikant samband visades mellan upplevt låt-gå ledarskap och amotivation. Studieresultaten har diskuterats i förhållande till teorier och tidigare forskning där slutsatsen är att både transformativt och konventionellt ledarskap har samband med idrottares motivation vilket kan vara betydande kunskap för praktisk tillämpning inom idrottskontexten. Studiens resultat ligger i linje med den tidigare knapphändiga forskningen inom området men mer forskning behövs. / The purpose of the present study was to examine relationships between athletes' perceptions of different leadership styles and motivational orientations within the context of sports. Theoretical frameworks of transformational; conventional; and laissez-faire leadership - as well as the different motivational orientations within Self-Determination Theory (SDT) - were applied. Participants were 117 handball and soccer players aged between 16-33 years (M = 19.17, SD = 3.61). Participants completed questionnaires consisting of the Sport Motivation Scale-II (SMSII) to estimate motivational orientations; the Transformational Teaching Questionnaire (TTQ) to measure perceived transformational leadership; and parts of the Developmental Leadership Questionnaire (DLQ), which intended to measure perceived conventional leadership and perceived laissez-faire leadership. The results revealed significant correlations between both transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation as well as extrinsic self-determined motivation (identified regulation and integrated regulation). Furthermore, results showed significant correlations between conventional leadership and non-self-determined motivation (external regulation and introjected regulation). The correlation between perceived laissez-faire leadership and amotivation was not statistically significant. The results are discussed in relation to theories and previous research. Conclusions were that both transformational and conventional leadership correlate with athlete's motivation, hence the knowledge of said subjects may be meaningful for practical application. The results are in line with previous limited research however further research is needed.

This research investigated the leadership style in a research and development (R&D) work unit within a petro-chemical company, using the Full Range Leadership Development Theory as assessed by Multifactor-Leadership-Questionnaire (MLQ). From the literature review conducted, it was concluded that an R&D environment is multi-dimensional and the workforce can be diverse in the field of specialisation and personality characteristics. Subsequently, the literature review also focused on functional diversity and gender differences within technological and/or scientific environments. Descriptive statistics were provided and the data were then statistically analysed. The research results showed a statistical difference in the perception of the frequency of leadership style between manager-leaders and subordinates. Differences in the mean scores of manager-leaders and subordinates found that the manager-leaders overestimated the frequency ratings of their transformational leadership style and the leadership outcomes, while they under-estimated the frequency ratings for transactional and laissez-faire leadership style. This indicates that although the manager-leaders consider themselves as more transformational, the subordinates of this R&D unit view their immediate managers as not displaying ideal levels of transformational leadership behaviours. A self-bias phenomenon may be present where the manager-leaders judge themselves as overly favourable. It is recommended that this be addressed within the organisation. A statistical significant difference was observed in how some male and female employees experienced their manager-leaders' leadership style. The females indicated a higher frequency of laissez-faire leadership style, while some males viewed their manager-leaders as more transformational compared to the female employees. Manager-leaders may need different skills to manage females and in general an increasing awareness of gender bias within the unit may mitigate stereotypical assumptions. No statistically significant differences (p<0, 05) could be found for the total group between functional areas, being scientists versus engineers. It should be noted that the departments consist of predominantly scientists, while only one department showed a mixture of scientists and engineers. / Thesis (M.B.A.)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.

This research investigated the leadership style in a research and development (R&D) work unit within a petro-chemical company, using the Full Range Leadership Development Theory as assessed by Multifactor-Leadership-Questionnaire (MLQ). From the literature review conducted, it was concluded that an R&D environment is multi-dimensional and the workforce can be diverse in the field of specialisation and personality characteristics. Subsequently, the literature review also focused on functional diversity and gender differences within technological and/or scientific environments. Descriptive statistics were provided and the data were then statistically analysed. The research results showed a statistical difference in the perception of the frequency of leadership style between manager-leaders and subordinates. Differences in the mean scores of manager-leaders and subordinates found that the manager-leaders overestimated the frequency ratings of their transformational leadership style and the leadership outcomes, while they under-estimated the frequency ratings for transactional and laissez-faire leadership style. This indicates that although the manager-leaders consider themselves as more transformational, the subordinates of this R&D unit view their immediate managers as not displaying ideal levels of transformational leadership behaviours. A self-bias phenomenon may be present where the manager-leaders judge themselves as overly favourable. It is recommended that this be addressed within the organisation. A statistical significant difference was observed in how some male and female employees experienced their manager-leaders' leadership style. The females indicated a higher frequency of laissez-faire leadership style, while some males viewed their manager-leaders as more transformational compared to the female employees. Manager-leaders may need different skills to manage females and in general an increasing awareness of gender bias within the unit may mitigate stereotypical assumptions. No statistically significant differences (p<0, 05) could be found for the total group between functional areas, being scientists versus engineers. It should be noted that the departments consist of predominantly scientists, while only one department showed a mixture of scientists and engineers. / Thesis (M.B.A.)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.