Modern banking theories provide a host of explanations for the existence of intermediaries, highlight their important influence on economic growth, delineate the risks inherent in the services they provide, and illustrate the market failures and real costs of bank failures that precipitate the need for regulation and oversight of the sector. This thesis is a collection of three essays that looks at three of these key aspects of financial intermediaries - the development of financial intermediaries, the function of the lender of last resort that has emerged as an important part of the safety net afforded to financial intermediaries, and the occurrence of financial crises. The first chapter of this thesis provides an introduction to the academic literature on financial intermediation covering different theories put forward to explain their emergence, and highlighting the risks inherent in their operation. It emphasizes the crucial functions they perform in the economy and makes a case for regulation and oversight of the sector to reduce the incidence and alleviate the effects of financial crises. The second chapter seeks to determine the policy and institutional factors that influence the development of financial institutions as measured across three dimensions - depth, efficiency, and stability. Applying the concept of the financial possibility frontier, developed by Beck and Feyen (2013) and formalized by Barajas et al. (2013b), we determine key policy variables affecting the gap between actual levels of development and benchmarks predicted by structural variables. Our dynamic panel estimation shows that inflation, trade openness, institutional quality, and banking crises significantly affect financial development. We also assess the impact of the policy variables across the different dimensions of development thereby identifying complementarities and potential trade-offs for policy makers. The third chapter models the role of the lender of last resort (LoLR) in a general equilibrium framework. We allow for heterogeneous agents and a risk-averse banking sector, and incorporate the frictions of endogenous default, liquidity, and money. Adverse supply shocks in monetary endowments trigger default, leading to deterioration in the value of bank assets, and subsequent bank illiquidity in some states of the world. LoLR intervention is then assessed with regards to its economy-wide effect on welfare, bank profitability, and the level of default. The results provide a justification for constructive ambiguity. The fourth chapter aims to provide an explanation for the incidence of financial crises by combining insights from agency theory and Minsky's financial instability hypothesis (Minsky, 1992) in a model with endogenous default. Our theoretical model shows that the probability of a financial crisis increases as the quality of shareholder information decreases. We then develop a measure for the quality of shareholder information following Simon (1989) and show that the market-wide quality of shareholder information: i) is poor (with no trend) in the Pre-SEC period (1840 to 1934); ii) improves substantially following the SEC reforms; and iii) gradually declines starting in the 1960s/70s until it is now back to pre-SEC levels. This matches up with the standard list of US financial crises (as in Reinhart and Rogoff 2009; Reinhart 2010) and supports our hypothesis that the likelihood of a financial crisis increases with deterioration in the quality of shareholder information.

Since the federal funds rate reached the zero lower bound in late 2008, economists have been struggling to adapt their models to a long-term zero rate. Wu and Xia built upon previous research by Fischer Black to create a model for how the federal funds rate behaves during the ZLB period. In their model, the rate actually dips into the negative digits, which the actual federal funds rate does not do. The logic behind the model is that a negative shadow rate is a much better indicator of true economic conditions while the current zero rate merely masks the actual economic reality. It is also easier to use the shadow rate for trend analysis purposes, since the shadow rate is flexible and changes while the federal funds rate remains artificially fixed at zero. Thus, this paper seeks to provide a comparison between the Shadow Rate, as defined by Wu and Xia, and how three key banking variables (leverage, profitability, and non-performing loans to total loans) react in response to the shadow rate, along with three control variables: real GDP growth, inflation, and the current account to GDP ratio. Regression will also be used to determine how three key borrower variables (S&P 500 Index, Credibility Consumer Distress Index, and the ratio of nonfinancial corporate business debt securities to total assets) interact with the shadow rate and the three control variables previously mentioned.

This study uses concurrent verbal protocol analysis to examine the decision processes of lenders as they evaluate the financial information of a loan applicant. Of specific interest is the lenders' use of Statement of Financial Accounting Standards Board No. 95 (FAS 95), Statement of Cash Flows, in that decision process.

The Swedish financial market for instant loan companies (paydayloan companies), has like in other countries gained a lot of criticism from media. Criticism is mainly due to reports of the number of increased claims for payment orders and due to increasing numbers of people getting into debts, but also as a basis for unfair costs. In Finland, a new law was introduced to improve consumer protection in 2013. The act has inspired the Swedish government to appoint the investigation SOU 2016:68, which, like the law introduced in Finland, has proposed, an interest rate limit for instant loans. The purpose of the paper is to provide a broader picture on how stakeholders of the instant loan credit market views and are expected to be affected by the law change suggestion from investigation SOU 2016:68. The method that has been used is of a qualitative approach, with interviews as a primary source and quantitative data as a secondary source. A survey was sent out to companies from a branch organization on the market of instant loans as well as interviews with concerned authorities. / Bakgrund: På den svenska marknaden för högkostnadskrediter har det sedan införandet av krediten riktats kritik i media. Kritiken har främst sin grund i rapporter om antalet ökade ansökningar om betalningsförelägganden hos Kronofogdemyndigheten, till följd av obetalda snabblån. Men även som grund i oskäliga kostnader och ockeranglagelser mot företag på marknaden. I Finland infördes en ny lag för att förbättra konsumentskyddet under 2013. Lagen har inspirerat den svenska regeringen att tillsätta utredningen SOU 2016:68 som har precis som lagen som infördes i Finland bland annat föreslagit ett ränte-och avgiftstak. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur intressenter på snabblånemarknaden ser på, och påverkas av, förväntade effekter från framlagda lagförslag från utredning SOU 2016:68. Genomförande: Studien har använt en kvalitativ forskningsmetod men använt kvantitativ sekundärdata. Fokus i empiriinsamlingen har varit av kvalitativ karaktär med semi- strukturerade telefonintervjuer. Intervjuer har gjorts med Konsumentverket och Finansinspektionen. En enkät skickades ut till företag på marknaden. Slutsats: Denna studie har visat att Konsumentverket och Finansinspektionen delar uppfattningen om att ränte- och avgiftstaket bör antas då det anses som en viktig reglering för ett stärkt konsumentskydd. Resultaten visar att enbart lite kritik har riktats mot utredningens förslag. C-Finance ansåg att räntetaket inte kommer påverka deras produkter eller kreditprocess i någon större utsträckning. Intressentmodellen har använts för att analysera branschen som helhet och både negativa och positiva effekter har identifierats.

Germany’s position of power within the European Union disguises how impacted the German economy was by the 2008 Financial Crisis and Europe’s subsequent Sovereign Debt Crisis. Two of Germany’s major banks-Commerzbank and Bayerische Landesbank- suffered major losses and required emergency liquidity assistance (ELA) to survive. Walter Bagehot wrote the theory underpinning lenders of last resort (LLRs) in 1873 but how has the development of systemically important banks affected the usefulness of Bagehot’s theory? This paper aims to explain why Germany is in need of updated LLR recommendations through an analysis of the ELA Germany at large, Commerzbank and Bayerische Landesbank received. It also aims to empirically prove the stigma and public distrust of ELA through a regression of Commerzbank’s daily stock returns using an augmented Fama/French model. I find that Bagehot’s theory and recommendations are out of date for our current global financial sector. I cannot empirically prove any stigma or public distrust of Commerzbank, there is no relationship between Commerzbank stock returns and the augmented Fama/French factors.

<p>The primary aim of this thesis has been to analyse the transformation of the Swedish capital market from a household perspective. The investigation shows that the transition from a mostly private credit market to a more institutionalised credit market took place at the end of the nineteenth century. At this time there were several actors in the credit market that were able to fulfil the diverse needs of credit that different households might have. This need was very much correlated to the household’s particular stage in its life-cycle. In accordance with the life-cycle theory and the permanent income hypothesis, households displayed a savings and consumption pattern that was dependent on income and the burden of expenditure. Households also seemed to have particular difficulty meeting expenditures, so-called life-cycle squeezes, when the household was first started, when the household size was at its peak and when the head of family reached old age, which coincided with a declining capacity to work. The investigation also shows that household savings were meant for old age. Contrary to the assumption made in life-cycle theory, households seemed to intend to provide heirs with an inheritance. This finding is more in keeping with the permanent income hypothesis, which states that households were expected to maintain their assets intact over the course of a life-time.</p>

The primary aim of this thesis has been to analyse the transformation of the Swedish capital market from a household perspective. The investigation shows that the transition from a mostly private credit market to a more institutionalised credit market took place at the end of the nineteenth century. At this time there were several actors in the credit market that were able to fulfil the diverse needs of credit that different households might have. This need was very much correlated to the household’s particular stage in its life-cycle. In accordance with the life-cycle theory and the permanent income hypothesis, households displayed a savings and consumption pattern that was dependent on income and the burden of expenditure. Households also seemed to have particular difficulty meeting expenditures, so-called life-cycle squeezes, when the household was first started, when the household size was at its peak and when the head of family reached old age, which coincided with a declining capacity to work. The investigation also shows that household savings were meant for old age. Contrary to the assumption made in life-cycle theory, households seemed to intend to provide heirs with an inheritance. This finding is more in keeping with the permanent income hypothesis, which states that households were expected to maintain their assets intact over the course of a life-time.

This study compares the legal principles applicable in both South Africa and Kenya in the creation of security by means of movables. It identifies the forms of security that can be created in the two jurisdictions. The main focus will be on the creation, publicity, priority of security interest and enforcement of the said interests. The research will in addition establish the challenges (if any) that are encountered when creating security by means of movables in Kenya and identify practical solutions that can be adopted in order to improve the creation of security by means of movables in Kenya. / Private Law / LL. M. (Property Law)

This study compares the legal principles applicable in both South Africa and Kenya in the creation of security by means of movables. It identifies the forms of security that can be created in the two jurisdictions. The main focus will be on the creation, publicity, priority of security interest and enforcement of the said interests. The research will in addition establish the challenges (if any) that are encountered when creating security by means of movables in Kenya and identify practical solutions that can be adopted in order to improve the creation of security by means of movables in Kenya. / Private Law / LL. M. (Property Law)

Real estate financing is one of the key figures for financial success and fundamental to a successful business. Funding will come in several different ways , from existing cashflows and assets to new capital requirements which are aimed at different markets. These markets are constantly changing and since the recent financial crisis , there have been adjustments and austerity measures which led to that the banks have become more restrictive in their lending. The real estate industry is characterized by both long-term and short-term thinking that is characterized by a solid continuity. Our thesis discuss how the demand is in the real estate business and how mature the Swedish market is for junior financing with focus around mezzanine debt and where are we headed in the near future. We've reached out to the key players in the industry on both the buy and sell side of real estate financing but also people between lenders and borrowers that handles transaction advice . To have been able to implement the analysis a survey and simulation of an investment calculation was created . This questionnaire was answered by many real estate companies with senior people that had operational positions most associated with corporate commitments. These companies are active in growth areas and especially in the Stockholm area of commercial real estate. After conducting the study , we have determined that the Swedish market is mature and ready for junior financing and it tends to be a gap between the smaller and the larger real estate companies in terms of demand for mezzanine debt . / För fastighetsbolag är tillgång till f inansiering en av nyckelfaktorerna för att uppnå en framgångsrik verksamhet. Finansiering sker på flera olika sätt, allt från befintliga kassaflöden och tillgångar till nytt behov av kapital där man vänder sig till olika marknader. Dessa marknader förändras hela tiden och sedan den senaste finanskrisen har det skett regleringar och åtstramningar vilket lett till att banker blivit mer restriktiva i sin utlåning. Fastighetsbranschen präglas av både långsiktighet och kortsiktighet som kännetecknas av en gedigen kontinuitet och vår uppsats behandlar hur efterfrågan ser ut i fastighetsbranschen och hur mogen den svenska marknaden är för juniorfinansiering med fokusering kring mezzaninekapital och om vi därigenom kan dra någon slutsats vart vi är på väg. Vi har lokaliserat de viktigaste aktörerna i branschen på både köp- och säljsidan vid fastighetsfinansiering men också personer mellan långivare och låntagare som sköter transaktionsrådgivning. För att ha kunnat implementera analysen gjordes en enkät och simulering av en investeringskalkyl. Denna enkät besvarades av flertalet fastighetsbolag med högt uppsatta personer med operativa befattningar samt flertalet bolagsengagemang knutna till sig. Dessa bolag är verksamma i tillväxtorter och framförallt i Stockholmsområdet mot kommersiella fastigheter. Efter att ha genomfört studien har vi fastställt att juniorfinansiering är något den svenska marknaden är mogen för och det tenderar till att uppstå en klyfta mellan de mindre och de större fastighetsbolagen när det gäller efterfrågan på mezzaninekapital.