Nous avons montré, aussi bien in vitro que in vivo, l’impossibilité de la reprogrammation directe des macrophages en cellules béta, et ce en en utilisant les facteurs publiés dans la littérature actuelle comme étant déterminants et importants pour la différenciation en cellules béta du pancréas. Les macrophages préalablement transduits par des virus, ont été cultivés dans des conditions spécifiques visant à mimer le microenvironnement pancréatique, ou injectés dans le pancréas des souris afin de faciliter la reprogrammation. De plus, l’échec dans la reprogrammation des lignages, la culture des macrophages en présence de composés régulant la différentiation des cellules béta induit la formation d’organoïdes. Ces “clusters” de cellules montrent une forte inhibition du potentiel prolifératif comme a été démontré par l’arrêt du cycle cellulaire. Le criblage de différents composés a permis l’identification de la nicotinamide (vitamine B3) comme étant la molécule responsable de l’inhibition de la progression du cycle cellulaire. Les analyses transcriptomiques ont montré l’augmentation de l’expression des inhibiteurs du cycle cellulaire ainsi que la réduction des niveaux d’expression des régulateurs positifs, confirmant que la nicotinamide régule négativement le cycle cellulaire. De manière intéressante, nous avons montré que ce phénomène est réversible, étant donné que le retrait de la nicotinamide résulte en un réengagement dans le cycle cellulaire et la formation de colonies. Ces résultats indiquent le possible rôle de la nicotinamide dans la régulation du potentiel prolifératif des macrophages Maf-DKO. / We have shown here that direct reprogramming of macrophages into beta cells was not possible, both in vitro and in vivo, using pancreatic fate determinants already reported in current literature. Transduced macrophages were cultured in specific conditions or injected into the murine pancreas, aiming to mimic the pancreatic microenvironment as a reprogramming inducer. Besides this failure in lineage reprogramming, culturing macrophages with compounds regulating beta cell differentiation induced the formation of organoids. These cell clusters showed strong inhibition of the proliferative potential, as demonstrated by the arrest of their cell cycle. Screening of the different compounds, allowed the identification of nicotinamide as the responsible molecule for the inhibition of cell cycle progression. Transcriptomic analysis depicted an increased expression of cell cycle inhibitors along with reduced levels of positive regulators, confirming the nicotinamide-induced negative regulation of cell cycle. Most importantly, we have demonstrated that this phenomenon was a reversible proliferation inhibition, since withdrawal of nicotinamide resulted in cell cycle re-entry and rescue of the colony formation phenotype. Together these results indicate a possible role of nicotinamide (Vitamin B3) in the regulation the Maf-DKO macrophages proliferative ability. Further investigations are needed to assess a role for Nicotinamide in controlling the biology of wild-type macrophages, and determine the molecular pathways controlling this transient phenomenon.

Ce projet de thèse se propose d’évaluer le devenir, la cytotoxicité et la réponse inflammatoire pulmonaire in vitro suite à l’exposition aux nanoparticules, et plus particulièrement vis-à-vis de la région alvéolaire.Les nanoparticules étudiées sont formulées à base d’acide poly (lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) (polymère biodégradable), stabilisées, ou non, par différents polymères de surface (alcool polyvinylique (PVA), chitosane (CS), pluronic F68 (PF68)). Les nanoparticules ont une taille d’environ 200 nm, et présentent des charges de surface neutre (PLGA/PVA), positive (PLGA/CS) ou négative (PLGA/PF68 et PLGA sans stabilisant). Des nanoparticules non-biodégradables de dioxyde de titane (TiO2) et de polystyrène ont été choisies comme contrôle positif. Pour mimer les conditions alvéolaires, la lignée cellulaire A549 d’épithélium alvéolaire humain a été utilisée en mono-culture et en co-culture en contact direct avec des macrophages différenciés de monocytes humains (lignée THP-1). Les caractérisations phénotypique et microscopique de la co-culture, ont confirmé la présence de deux types cellulaires viables et en contact. Le CD14, récepteur membranaire exprimé uniquement par les macrophages, sera utilisé pour identifier chaque sous-population cellulaire. D’autre part, l’analyse du récepteur CD54 a montré la présence d’interactions intercellulaires en co-culture : exprimé uniquement par les macrophages en mono-culture, il est exprimé par les deux sous-populations cellulaires en co-culture. Ces interactions ont été confirmées lors de la quantification des cytokines sécrétées après exposition au lipopolysaccharide: les niveaux de sécrétions en co-culture étant jusqu’à 5 fois supérieurs aux niveaux théoriques (issus de la somme des sécrétions en mono-culture).L’analyse en microscopie confocale a confirmé que les nanoparticules sont internalisées par chaque type cellulaire, Les cinétiques d’internalisation suivies en cytométrie en flux ont montré que les nanoparticules de charge de surface négative sont internalisées en plus grande quantité que les autres, quelque soit le type cellulaire, en mono ou en co-culture, selon un mécanisme énergie-dépendant. Enfin, en co-culture, les macrophages internalisent davantage de nanoparticules que les cellules épithéliales.La cytotoxicité des nanoparticules a été évaluée par la mesure de l’activité mitochondriale, l’étude de l’intégrité membranaire, et le type de mort cellulaire. Les résultats montrent qu’à faible concentration toutes les nanoparticules de PLGA induisent une cytotoxicité généralement faible (60 à 80 % de viabilité), avec une mort exclusivement nécrotique, sans induire de forts dommages à la membrane. La toxicité des nanoparticules de PLGA/CS peut être expliquée par la toxicité propre du chitosane. A forte concentration, le cas des nanoparticules de PLGA sans stabilisant mérite d’être noté, car elles n’induisent aucune cytotoxicité vis-à-vis des macrophages, contrairement aux nanoparticules stabilisées. La cytotoxicité des nanoparticules de TiO2 est plus importante, mais peu de dommages à la membrane sont causés. La réponse inflammatoire a été évaluée par la quantification des cytokines sécrétées après 24 h d’exposition aux nanoparticules (0,1 mg/mL). En mono-culture, seules les nanoparticules de PLGA/PF68 induisent une réponse inflammatoire sur les cellules A549, corrélée à leur plus grande internalisation. En co-culture, la réponse inflammatoire est peu prononcée. En revanche, ni les polymères de surface ni les nanoparticules de PLGA sans stabilisant, n’induisent de réponse inflammatoire spécifique.Ces résultats montrent la faible toxicité des nanoparticules de PLGA vis-à-vis des conditions alvéolaires, et soulignent l’importance du recouvrement de surface. En conclusion, les nanoparticules de PLGA testées présentent un fort intérêt pour une application biomédicale, modulée par l’ajustement des propriétés de surface. / The pulmonary route has attracted great attention for the delivery of nanomedicines due to the non invasiveness, a weak enzymatic activity and potential alveolar retention and/or absorption. However, the potential pulmonary toxicity of nanoparticles raises a lot of concern, especially for manufactured, non-biodegradable nanoparticles. In this study, we design and characterize an in vitro model of lung epithelium based on a co-culture of alveolar epithelial-like cells (A549) and macrophages (differentiated from THP-1 monocytes), and use it to assess the potential toxicity of various biodegradable nanoparticles in the form of nanocarriers, as compared to non-biodegradable nanoparticles used in manufactured products. The ultimate goal is to provide a safety pattern of nanoparticles relevant for drug delivery to the lung.The co-culture was characterized by flow cytometry (analysis of three cell membrane receptors: CD14, CD11b and CD54) and confocal laser scanning microscopy. The presence of two different cell types was evidenced, as well as several cellular interactions. For instance, after exposure to a pro-inflammatory compound, synergistic effects were observed, in terms of cytokine secretions ( IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α and MCP-1). Such co-cultures are thus a valuable tool to investigate the inflammatory response following exposure to nanoparticles. On the other hand, the cell membrane receptor CD14 (expressed only by macrophages) was used as an identification tool to distinguish each cell population in co-culture.Biodegradable nanoparticles having size around 230 nm, were prepared according to an emulsion-evaporation process using poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA). The use of polyvinylalcohol (PVA), chitosan (CS) or poloxamer (PF68) as stabilizers allows the formation of, respectively, neutral, positively- or negatively-charged nanoparticles. In addition, stabilizer-free nanoparticles (negatively charged) were prepared. Commercial titanium dioxide and polystyrene nanoparticles were used as non-biodegradable nanoparticles.After exposure to nanoparticles, uptake kinetics (flow cytometry and confocal microscopy) were performed in cells in mono and co-culture. Negatively-charged nanoparticles (stabilizer-free PLGA and PLGA/PF68 nanoparticles) were found in higher quantity in each cell population. Several cytotoxicity tests (MTT, trypan blue, selective membrane permeability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release) have shown a low to medium cytotoxicity of PLGA nanoparticles. The cytotoxicity of PLGA/CS nanoparticles was attributed to the cytotoxicity of the chitosan in solution, whereas the cytotoxicity of PLGA/PF68 nanoparticles was attributed to their higher uptake. After 24 h exposure to a low dose of PLGA nanoparticles, a low inflammatory response was detected. Non-biodegradable nanoparticles have shown a slightly higher toxicity.Differences observed among PLGA nanoparticles in terms of cytotoxicity, cell uptake quantity and inflammatory response highlight the importance of the coating of nanocarriers for drug delivery application.

Apesar de apenas 10% dos indivíduos infectados por Mycobacterium tuberculosis desenvolverem tuberculose, essa doença causa a morte de milhares de pessoas anualmente. Sabendo que o background genético do hospedeiro está relacionado com suscetibilidade/resistência à infecção por M. tuberculosis, nosso grupo vem avaliando diferenças na resposta imunológica entre camundongos C57BL/6 resistentes e BALB/c suscetíveis. No presente estudo, nós nos propusemos a avaliar populações de macrófagos M1 e M2 em animais com capacidade diferente de elaborar resposta imune celular nessa infecção. Animais C57BL/6, que elaboram resposta imune celular de maior magnitude, e BALB/c foram infectados com M. tuberculosis, e avaliados aos 30 e 70 dias de infecção. Observamos maior porcentagem de células CD11b+Ly-6C+, que caracterizam monócitos inflamatórios, no pulmão de animais BALB/c com 70 dias de infecção comparada à porcentagem detectada em animais C57BL/6 com mesmo período de infecção. Houve correlação positiva significativa entre número de bacilos e expressão gênica para iNOS aos 30 dias de infecção comparando ambas as linhagens. Ao contrário da nossa hipótese inicial, observamos maior porcentagem de células CD11b+F4/80+CD206+, que caracteriza o fenótipo de macrófagos M2, no pulmão de animais C57BL/6 com 70 dias de infecção comparada à porcentagem detectada em animais BALB/c com mesmo período de infecção, havendo correlação inversa significativa de células CD11b+F4/80+CD206+ e número de bacilos aos 70 dias de infecção. Não houve diferença na análise funcional de macrófagos M1 e M2 obtidos a partir de precursores da medula óssea, comparando as duas linhagens de camundongos. Dessa forma, experimentos com o propósito de estudar a função dessas células in vivo serão conduzidos para avaliar se os macrófagos M2 participam da resposta protetora que auxilia na eliminação dos bacilos ou na resposta protetora que auxilia no reparo tecidual do hospedeiro. / Despite only 10% of individuals infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis develop tuberculosis, this disease causes millions of deaths annually. We know that the host genetic background is associated with susceptibility/resistance to M. tuberculosis-infection. Therefore, our group has studied differences in the immunologic response between resistant C57BL/6 mice and susceptible BALB/c mice. In the present study, our aim was to evaluate populations of M1 and M2 macrophages in mice that generate different magnitude of cellular immune response in this infection. C57BL/6 mice, which elaborate a higher immune cellular response, and BALB/c mice were infected with M. tuberculosis, and evaluated 30 and 70 days post infection. We observed higher percentage of CD11b+Ly-6C+ cells, which characterize inflammatory monocytes, in the lung of BALB/c mice with 70 days of infection compared to the percentage detected in C57BL/6 animals in the same period of infection. There was a significant positive correlation between CFU number and iNOS genic expression comparing both mouse strains 30 days post infection. On the contrary to our initial hypothesis, we observed higher percentage of CD11b+F4/80+CD206+ cells, which characterize M2 macrophage phenotype, in the lung of Day 70-infected C57BL/6 animals compared with the percentage detected in BALB/c mice at the same time of infection. There was a significant inverse correlation between CD11b+F4/80+CD206+ cells and bacillus number at 70 days post infection. There was no difference in the functional analysis of M1 and M2 macrophages obtained from precursors of bone marrow, comparing both mouse strains. Therefore, experimental assays with the aim to study whether M2 macrophages contribute for the protective immune response that induce bacillus clearance or contribute to the protective immune response that promote host tissue repair will be performed in an attempt to understand better the role of these cells in the M. tuberculosis-infection.

L’artériopathie oblitérante des membres inférieurs conduit progressivement au rétrécissement des artères qui assurent la vascularisation des membres inférieurs. Il en résulte une ischémie des tissus irrigués par ces artères et à terme, en cas d’occlusion artérielle, une ischémie critique conduisant à une amputation du membre. De nouvelles stratégies de thérapie cellulaire basées sur l’injection de cellules progénitrices capables d’induire une angiogenèse thérapeutique se sont développées ces dernières années. Cependant le faible taux d’incorporation des cellules transplantées dans le tissu ischémique limite le développement de ces nouvelles approches. Dans ce contexte, mon travail de thèse a consisté à étudier deux approches thérapeutiques distinctes pouvant améliorer les thérapies pro-angiogènes. La première étude porte sur le fucoïdane, polysaccharide sulfaté d’origine naturelle, antithrombotique favorisant la formation de nouveaux vaisseaux sanguins dans le modèle murin d’ischémie du membre inférieur. Nous avons montré qu’il induisait le recrutement de monocytes en améliorant leur adhésion à l’endothélium activé en condition dynamique, ainsi que leur adhésion à la matrice et leur transmigration in vitro. Cette action est médiée par l’activation des voies de signalisation ERK et p38 et la sécrétion de métalloprotéinases 9. De plus, le fucoïdane entraine une polarisation des macrophages de type pro-angiogènes in vitro. Il augmente leur recrutement dans le muscle ischémié permettant de réduire ainsi la phase inflammatoire post-ischémique, la nécrose et de favoriser le processus de cicatrisation. La deuxième étude porte sur le rôle des neuropilines (NRP), co-récepteurs du VEGF (facteur de croissance pro-angiogène) exprimés à la surface des ECFC, afin de comprendre leur implication au niveau moléculaire dans le mécanisme d’action pro-angiogène des ECFCs et optimiser l’efficacité de la thérapie cellulaire. A l’aide du système d’extinction par ARN interférent, nous avons découvert un mécanisme de compensation jamais étudié auparavant puisque l’inhibition de NRP1 entraine une augmentation de celle de NRP2 et une diminution de la prolifération et de la migration des ECFCs. En revanche, l’extinction de NRP2 n’a pas d’effet sur l’expression de NRP1, mais induit une augmentation de l’adhésion des ECFCs à la matrice extracellulaire associée à une augmentation de la phosphorylation des ERK1/2. / Vascular diseases such as Peripheral Arterial Disease may evolve towards critical limb ischemia, requiring revascularization or amputation. New strategies of cell therapy based on the injection of progenitor cells able to induce therapeutic angiogenesis have been recently developed. However the low level of incorporation of transplanted cells in the ischemic tissue limits the development of these new approaches. In this context, my thesis was to study two different therapeutic approaches that can improve the pro-angiogenic therapies. The first focuses on fucoidan, a marine sulphated polysaccharide with antithrombotic properties. We have previously shown promising angiogenic properties of fucoidan in vivo. We found that fucoidan increases monocyte recruitment and improves their adhesion to activated endothelium under dynamic condition. It also increases in vitro transmigration. This action is mediated by the activation of ERK and p38 signaling pathways and metalloproteinase 9 secretion. Further, fucoidan can lead macrophage polarization to the pro-angiogenic type in vitro. It increases macrophage recruitment in ischemic muscle that could reduce post-ischemic inflammatory phase and necrosis leading to healing process. The second study focuses on the role of neuropilin (NRP), co-receptors of VEGF (pro-angiogenic growth factor). The aim of this part was to understand their involvement in the pro-angiogenic properties of ECFC at molecular level and optimize the efficiency of cell therapy. Using siRNA, we found a compensation mechanism never studied before. The NRP1 inhibition leads to an increase in the NRP2 expression and a decrease of ECFC proliferation and migration. The NRP2 silencing has no impact on NRP1, but induces ECFC adhesion to the extracellular matrix correlated with an increased level of ERK1 / 2 phosphorylation.

Au cours des dernières décennies, les modifications comportementales ont conduit à une forte augmentation de la prévalence des maladies métaboliques comme l’obésité et le diabète de type 2. L’hyperglycémie chronique associée à ces maladies a des effets délétères sur de nombreux tissus, entraînant de graves complications (glucotoxicité). Parmi les différents mécanismes impliqués dans les effets toxiques du glucose, la O-N-acétylglucosaminylation (O-GlcNAc) des protéines joue un rôle très important. La O-GlcNAcylation est une modification post-traductionnelle réversible qui régule l'activité des protéines cytosoliques et nucléaires en fonction de la disponibilité en glucose. Deux enzymes seulement, l’O-GlcNAc transférase (OGT) et l’O-GlcNAcase (OGA), ajoutent ou retirent le groupement GlcNAc sur les protéines, respectivement. Cette modification dépend étroitement de la disponibilité en glucose et de son flux à travers la voie de biosynthèse des hexosamines (HBP). Les maladies métaboliques comme le diabète et l'obésité se caractérisent par ailleurs par une inflammation chronique à bas bruit, qui participe également aux complications observées dans ces pathologies. Les perturbations métaboliques associées à ces maladies (augmentation des acides gras libres et du glucose) favorisent les processus pro-inflammatoires dans le macrophage. Cependant, les relations entre processus inflammatoires et O-GlcNAcylation des protéines restent peu explorées. Le but de ce travail était d’évaluer l’implication de la voie de O-GlcNAcylation dans le macrophage. Les études ont été réalisées en utilisant la lignée de macrophages murins RAW264.7 ou des macrophages, différenciés à partir de moelle osseuse de souris, des macrophages péritonéaux de souris ou des macrophages différenciés à partir à de monocytes humains. La O-GlcNAcylation des protéines a été mesurée dans les macrophages RAW264.7 à l’aide d’un biosenseur BRET adressé dans différents compartiments cellulaires. Nous avons observé que l'activation du Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 par le LPS (lipopolysaccharide) augmente le signal de BRET à la membrane plasmique, dans le cytosol et le noyau des cellules RAW264.7. Une augmentation de la O-GlcNAcylation induite par le LPS était également observée par western blotting dans les cellules RAW264.7 et dans les macrophages primaires de souris et humains. Cette augmentation de O-GlcNAcylation était en particulier détectée sur la sous-unité p65 du facteur de transcription NFκB, suggérant un rôle de cette modification dans les effets pro-inflammatoires du LPS. En accord avec cette notion, l’inhibition de l’OGA, (responsable de la dé-GlcNAcylation des protéines) à l’aide d’un inhibiteur spécifique (Thiamet G), potentialise les effets du LPS sur l’expression des ARNm de la cytokine pro-inflammatoire IL1β. Nous avons en outre généré un modèle de souris OGT-KO inductible au tamoxifène. L’invalidation de l’OGT dans les macrophages primaires de ces souris réduit l’effet du LPS sur l’expression des ARNm de l’IL1β d’un facteur 2, suggérant que l’induction de la O-GlcNAcylation est au moins en partie impliquée dans la transmission des effets pro-inflammatoires du LPS. Afin d’élucider les mécanismes responsables de l’augmentation de O-GlcNAcylation induite par le LPS, nous avons étudié, dans les cellules RAW264.7, l’effet du LPS sur les enzymes impliquées dans la voie O-GlcNAc. Nous avons observé que le traitement au LPS n’a pas d’effet sur l’expression (ARNm et protéine) et sur les activités enzymatiques de l’OGT et de l’OGA. En revanche, le LPS induit une forte augmentation de l’expression (ARNm et protéine) de la glutamine : fructose-6-phosphate amidotransférase (GFAT), enzyme limitante de la voie HBP. (...) / In the last decades, changes in lifestyle have led to a dramatic increased prevalence of pathologies such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. Chronic hyperglycaemia associated with these diseases has deleterious effects on many tissues, resulting in serious complications (glucotoxicity). Among the different mechanisms involved in the toxic effects of glucose, O-N-acetylglucosaminylation (O-GlcNAc) of proteins plays an important role. O-GlcNAcylation is a reversible post-translational modification that regulates the activities of cytosolic and nuclear proteins. Only two enzymes, O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) and O-GlcNAcase (OGA), control the level of O-linked N-acetyl glucosamine (O- GlcNAc) on proteins. OGT is the enzyme that O-GlcNAcylates proteins, whereas OGA removes O-GlcNAc from proteins. This post-translational modification tightly depends on glucose availability and its flux through the hexosamines biosynthesis pathway (HBP). Metabolic diseases such as diabetes and obesity are also characterized by chronic low level inflammation, which contributes to the complications observed in these pathologies. The metabolic disturbances associated with these diseases (increased free fatty acids and glucose) promote pro-inflammatory processes in the macrophage. However, the relationships between inflammatory processes and O-GlcNAcylation of proteins remain poorly explored. The aim of this work was to evaluate the involvement of the O-GlcNAcylation pathway in the macrophage. The studies were carried out using the RAW264.7 mouse macrophage cell line or primary macrophages differentiated from mouse bone marrow (BMDM), peritoneal mouse macrophages, or human monocytes derived macrophages (hMDM). O-GlcNAcylation of proteins was measured in RAW264.7 macrophages using a BRET biosensor targeted to different cell compartments. We have observed that activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 by LPS (lipopolysaccharide) increases the BRET signal at the plasma membrane, in the cytosol, and nucleus of RAW264.7 cells. An increase in LPS-induced O-GlcNAcylation was also observed by western blotting in RAW264.7 cells and primary mouse and human macrophages. This increase in O-GlcNAcylation was in particular detected on the p65 subunit of the NFκB transcription factor, suggesting a role for this modification in the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS. In agreement with this notion, inhibition of OGA, (responsible for de-GlcNAcylation of proteins) using a specific inhibitor (Thiamet G) potentiates the effects of LPS on mRNA expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL1β. In addition, we generated a tamoxifen-inducible OTG-KO mouse model. Invalidation of OGT in primary macrophages of these mice reduces the effect of LPS on the expression of IL1β mRNAs by a factor of 2, suggesting that the induction of O-GlcNAcylation is at least in part involved in the transmission of the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS. In order to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for LPS-induced increase in O-GlcNAcylation, we studied the effect of LPS on the enzymes involved in the O-GlcNAc pathway in RAW264.7 cells. We observed that LPS treatment had no effect on the expression (mRNA and protein) and on the enzymatic activities of OGT and OGA. On the other hand, LPS induced a strong increase in the expression (mRNA and protein) of glutamine: fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase (GFAT), the rate limiting enzyme of the HBP pathway. Inhibition of GFAT with 6-Diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON) inhibited LPS-induced increase in O-GlcNAcylation and LPS effect on the expression of IL1β mRNA, but not NOS2 expression, confirming a partial dependence of the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS on the O-GlcNAc pathway. In conclusion, our results indicate that activation of the O-GlcNAcylation pathway could be considered as an integral part of the signal induced by TLR4, and suggest that this pathway is involved in some of the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS in the macrophage.

背景：纤维化是各种因素导致肾脏慢性损伤的最终病理过程，是决定肾功能转归的关键因素。肌纤维母细胞作为构成肾脏纤维化组织的主要细胞成分，其来源尚不清楚。本研究认为骨髓来源的巨噬细胞向肌纤维母细胞转分化（MMT）可能是肾脏纤维化中肌纤维母细胞的主要来源。我们分别在慢性肾脏病患者的肾活检组织和小鼠单侧输料管梗阻模型（UUO）中验证这一假说。 / 方法：我们用激光共聚焦技术和流式细胞染色的方法检测小鼠UUO肾脏和患者肾活检组织中的MMT细胞(F4/80⁺α-SMA⁺或CD68⁺α-SMA⁺)。为了验证骨髓来源的MMT在肾纤维化中的重要作用，UUO模型分别在以下小鼠进行：1）去除骨髓的C57BL/6J小鼠，给予或不给予绿色荧光蛋白（GFP）标记的骨髓细胞移植；2）GFP⁺骨髓的嵌合体小鼠；3）巨噬细胞敲除或不敲除的lysM-Cre/DTR小鼠；4）GFP⁺Smad3⁺/⁺ 或GFP⁺Smad3⁻/⁻骨髓的嵌合体小鼠。我们用实时定量PCR和Western blot检测小鼠肾组织collagen-I和α-SMA水平。另外，我们观察MMT细胞和PDGFR-β⁺ pericytes, CD45⁺collagen I⁺ fibrocytes的关系。最后，通过观察GFP⁺Smad3⁻/⁻骨髓嵌合体小鼠UUO模型肾纤维化程度和TGF-β1刺激下TGF-β受体II或Smad3敲除的骨髓巨噬细胞MMT的不同进一步探索TGF-β/Smad3通路对MMT的影响。 / 结果：去除骨髓后，肾脏collagen-I沉积和α-SMA⁺肌纤维母细胞生成显著受抑制，骨髓细胞移植可以恢复肾脏纤维化，免疫荧光染色显示嵌合体小鼠中多数（80-90%）肌纤维母细胞来自于骨髓巨噬细胞转分化。同时，在白喉霉素诱导的巨噬细胞敲除小鼠中，50-60%巨噬细胞被去除，伴有纤维化明显减少，并且和MMT细胞显著减少相关。进一步验证巨噬细胞通过MMT直接参与肾脏纤维化过程。患者肾活检组织亦可见不同数目MMT细胞，纤维化活跃组织中MMT细胞可占到肌纤维母细胞总数的80%。另外，我们发现无论在小鼠模型还是患者肾活检组织中，多数MMT细胞表达pericyte（PDGFR-β⁺）和fibrocyte（CD45⁺collagen-I⁺）标记物。Smad3⁻/⁻骨髓嵌合体小鼠肾纤维化程度明显低于Smad3⁺/⁺骨髓嵌合体组，TGF-β1刺激下TGF-β受体II或Smad3敲除的骨髓巨噬细胞MMT明显低于不敲除组，提示TGF-β/Smad3通路在MMT过程中起重要作用。 / 结论：骨髓来源的MMT是肾纤维化组织中肌纤维母细胞的主要来源，TGF-β/Smad3 通路在MMT 过程中起重要作用。 / Background: Fibrosis is the ultimate pathological feature and determinant process for chronic kidney disease (CKD) regardless of the underlying etiology. Myofibroblasts are a key cell type in renal fibrosis by producing excessive collagen matrix. However, the origin of myofibroblasts during renal fibrosis remains largely controversial. This thesis tested the hypothesis that bone marrow (BM)-derived macrophage myofibroblast transition (MMT) may be a key pathway leading to renal fibrosis in patients with CKD and in a mouse model of unilateral ureteral obstructive nephropathy (UUO). / Methods: Renal fibrosis was assessed by expression of fibrotic marker collagen I and α-SMA using real-time PCR and western-blot analysis. MMT was determined in both mouse and human kidneys by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry with α-SMA⁺F4/80⁺ (or CD68⁺). The critical role of BM-derived MMT in renal fibrosis was examined in a mouse model of UUO, with various conditions: 1) BM depletion followed by BM transplantation (BMT) with GFP⁺ BM cells; 2) in GFP⁺ BM chimeric mice; 3) in lysM-Cre/DTR mice with or without inducible macrophage deletion; 4) in GFP⁺Smad3⁺/⁺ or GFP⁺Smad3⁻/⁻ BM chimeric mice. In addition, MMT was also validated in renal biopsy tissues from patients with different forms of CKD. Further more, we also studied the relationship between MMT and PDGFR-β⁺ pericytes or CD45⁺collagen I⁺ fibrocytes in both human and mouse fibrotic kidneys. Finally, mechanisms of MMT was examined in the UUO kidney induced in GFP⁺Smad3⁻/⁻ BM chimeric mice and in BM macrophages lacking TGF-β receptor II or Smad3. / Results: As described in Chapter III, mice with BM deletion were protected from renal fibrosis as demonstrated by blocking α-SMA⁺ myofibroblasts and collagen I accumulation. In contrast, BMT restored renal fibrosis in UUO kidney, demonstrating the critical role for BM cells in renal fibrosis. Importantly, the majority (85-90%) of α-SMA⁺ myofibroblasts were derived from BM macrophages as identified by GFP⁺F4/80⁺α-SMA⁺ revealing BM-macrophages given rise to myofibroblasts via MMT during kidney fibrosis. Similarly, MMT appeared as a major pathway of myofibroblast origin in patients with CKD, accounting for up to 80% of total myofibroblasts in the active stage of tissue fibrosis and fibrocellular crescents. To test the function role of macrophages in renal fibrosis via MMT, macrophages were conditionally deleted from the UUO kidneys in lysM-Cre/DTR mice as shown in Chapter IV, deletion (50-60%) of macrophages resulted in inhibition of MMT and renal fibrosis. Unexpectedly, most MMT cells (80-90%) were shown to co-express the pericyte marker (PDGFR-β⁺) and fibrocyte markers (CD45⁺collagen I⁺) in both human CKD and UUO (Chapter V), suggesting a BM macrophage origin for pericytes and fibrocytes during renal fibrosis. Finally, TGF-β/Smad3 appeared to be a mechanism driven MMT because mice and BM macrophages lacking either Smad3 or TβRII were protected against MMT and progressive renal fibrosis in the UUO kidney and in vitro. / Conclusions: MMT is derived from BM macrophages and regulated by TGF-β/Smad3. MMT is a major pathway of myofibroblast origin during renal fibrosis in both human and animal model of CKD. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Wang, Shuang. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 161-179). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Chapter ABSTRACT --- p.ii / Chapter DECLARATION --- p.viii / Chapter ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.ix / Chapter TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.xi / Chapter LIST OF ABBREVIATION --- p.xv / Chapter LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES --- p.xvii / Chapter CHAPTER I --- p.1 / INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter 1. 1 --- Renal fibrosis and myofibroblasts --- p.2 / Chapter 1. 1. 1 --- Pathology of renal fibrosis --- p.2 / Chapter 1. 1. 2 --- The generation and modulation of myofibroblasts. --- p.3 / Chapter 1. 1. 2. 1 --- EMT and EndMT --- p.5 / Chapter 1. 1. 2. 2 --- Pericytes --- p.8 / Chapter 1. 1. 2. 3 --- Fibrocytes --- p.16 / Chapter 1. 2 --- Role of macrophage in fibrogenesis --- p.21 / Chapter 1. 3 --- TGF-β signaling pathway in renal fibrosis --- p.23 / Chapter 1. 3. 1 --- TGF-β superfamily --- p.23 / Chapter 1. 3. 2 --- TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway --- p.24 / Chapter CHAPTER II --- p.29 / MATERIALS AND METHODS --- p.29 / Chapter 2. 1 --- Materials --- p.30 / Chapter 2. 1. 1 --- Regents and equipments --- p.30 / Chapter 2. 1. 1. 1 --- Regents and equipment for mouse genotyping --- p.30 / Chapter 2. 1. 1. 2 --- Regents and equipments for real-time PCR --- p.30 / Chapter 2. 1. 1. 3 --- Reagents and equipments for immunohistochemistry staining --- p.31 / Chapter 2. 1. 1. 4 --- Reagents and equipment for flow cytometry --- p.32 / Chapter 2. 1. 2 --- Buffer --- p.32 / Chapter 2. 1. 2. 1 --- Buffers for immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining --- p.32 / Chapter 2. 1. 2. 2 --- Buffers for western blot --- p.35 / Chapter 2. 1. 3 --- Sequences of primers for genotyping and real-time PCR --- p.41 / Chapter 2. 1. 4 --- Antibodies --- p.42 / Chapter 2. 2 --- Methods --- p.44 / Chapter 2. 2. 1 --- Generation of gene modified mice --- p.44 / Chapter 2. 2. 2 --- Bone marrow transplantation --- p.45 / Chapter 2. 2. 3 --- Conditional macrophage deletion --- p.45 / Chapter 2. 2. 4 --- Unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) mouse model --- p.46 / Chapter 2. 2. 5 --- Histology and immunohistochemistry --- p.46 / Chapter 2. 2. 5. 1 --- Processing paraffin sections --- p.46 / Chapter 2. 2. 5. 2 --- Deparaffinization and hydration --- p.47 / Chapter 2. 2. 5. 3 --- Blocking endogenous peroxidase --- p.47 / Chapter 2. 2. 5. 4 --- Antigen retrieval --- p.48 / Chapter 2. 2. 5. 5 --- Antigen and antibody reaction --- p.48 / Chapter 2. 2. 5. 6 --- Detection of target signals --- p.49 / Chapter 2. 2. 5. 7 --- Quantification of immunohistochemistry staining --- p.49 / Chapter 2. 2. 6 --- Immunofluorescence staining and confocal microscopy analysis --- p.49 / Chapter 2. 2. 6. 1 --- Processing tissue for immune-fluorescent (IF) staining --- p.49 / Chapter 2. 2. 6. 2 --- Serum blocking --- p.50 / Chapter 2. 2. 6. 3 --- Antigen antibody reaction --- p.50 / Chapter 2. 2. 6. 4 --- Signal detection --- p.51 / Chapter 2. 2. 7 --- Flow cytometry --- p.52 / Chapter 2. 2. 7. 1 --- Preparation of single cell suspension --- p.52 / Chapter 2. 2. 7. 2 --- Cell fixation and permeabilization --- p.53 / Chapter 2. 2. 7. 3 --- Staining --- p.53 / Chapter 2. 2. 7. 4 --- Signal detection and analysis --- p.54 / Chapter 2. 2 .8 --- Real time PCR --- p.55 / Chapter 2. 2. 8. 1 --- Total RNA extraction --- p.55 / Chapter 2. 2. 8. 2 --- Reverse transcription --- p.56 / Chapter 2. 2. 8. 3 --- Real-time PCR --- p.57 / Chapter 2. 2. 8. 4 --- Analysis of real-time PCR --- p.57 / Chapter 2. 2. 9 --- Western blot --- p.58 / Chapter 2. 2. 9. 1 --- Protein extraction from tissue --- p.58 / Chapter 2. 2. 9. 2 --- Protein concentration measurement --- p.59 / Chapter 2. 2. 9. 3 --- SDS-PAGE electrophoresis --- p.59 / Chapter 2. 2. 9. 4 --- Protein transfer --- p.60 / Chapter 2. 2. 9. 5 --- Blocking --- p.61 / Chapter 2. 2. 9. 6 --- Antibodies incubation and signal detection --- p.62 / Chapter 2. 2. 9. 7 --- Stripping --- p.62 / Chapter CHAPTER III --- p.63 / EVIDENCE FOR MMT AS A NEW PATHWAY OF MYOFIBROBLAST ORIGIN IN RENAL FIBROSIS --- p.63 / Chapter 3. 1 --- Introduction --- p.64 / Chapter 3. 2 --- Materials and methods --- p.65 / Chapter 3. 2. 1 --- Human renal biopsy tissues --- p.65 / Chapter 3. 2. 2 --- Experimental design --- p.65 / Chapter 3. 2. 3 --- Bone marrow transplantation and GFP⁺ BM chimeric mice --- p.66 / Chapter 3. 2. 4 --- Immunohistochemistry --- p.66 / Chapter 3. 2. 5 --- Immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy analysis --- p.67 / Chapter 3. 2. 6 --- Real-time PCR --- p.68 / Chapter 3. 2. 7 --- Western blot analysis --- p.68 / Chapter 3. 2. 8 --- Flow cytometry --- p.68 / Chapter 3. 3 --- Results --- p.69 / Chapter 3. 3. 1 --- BM-derived myofibroblasts play a key role in renal fibrosis in a mouse model of UUO --- p.69 / Chapter 3. 3. 1. 1 --- α-SMA⁺ myofibroblasts are derived from BM and determine renal fibrosis in a mouse model of UUO --- p.69 / Chapter 3. 3. 1. 2 --- BM as a major source of collagen production in a mouse model of UUO --- p.73 / Chapter 3. 3. --- 2 Evidence for BM derived macrophage-myofibrobalst transition (MMT) in a mouse model of UUO --- p.77 / Chapter 3. 3. 2. 1 --- Characterization of GFP⁺ BM chimeric mice --- p.77 / Chapter 3. 3. 2. 2 --- Evidence for bone marrow-derived MMT is the major source of myofibroblast origin in the UUO kidney --- p.79 / Chapter 3. 3. 3 --- Evidence for MMT in human fibrotic kidney tissues --- p.84 / Chapter 3. 3. 4 --- M2 macrophage is the predomimant phenotype of macrophages in the fibrotic kidney of UUO mouse model. --- p.88 / Chapter 3. 4 --- Discussion --- p.90 / Chapter 3. 5 --- Conclusion --- p.93 / Chapter CHAPTER IV --- p.94 / Chapter GE --- CONDITIONAL MACROPHA DELETION INHIBITS MMT AND RENAL FIBROSIS --- p.94 / Chapter 4. 1 --- Introduction --- p.95 / Chapter 4. 2 --- Materials and methods --- p.98 / Chapter 4. 2. 1 --- Generation of lysM-Cre/DTR mice --- p.98 / Chapter 4. 2. 2 --- Conditional deletion of macrophage --- p.98 / Chapter 4. 2. 3 --- Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction (UUO) mouse model --- p.98 / Chapter 4. 2. 4 --- Real-time PCR --- p.99 / Chapter 4. 2. 5 --- Western blot analysis --- p.99 / Chapter 4. 2. 6 --- Immunohistochemisty --- p.99 / Chapter 4. 2. 7 --- Immunofluorescence --- p.99 / Chapter 4. 3 --- Results --- p.100 / Chapter 4. 3. 1 --- Characterization of lysM-Cre/DTR mice --- p.100 / Chapter 4. 3. 2 --- Conditional deletion of macrophage in a mouse model of UUO --- p.101 / Chapter 4. 3. 3 --- Conditional deletion of macrophage suppresses α-SMA⁺ myofibroblast accumulation in a mouse model of UUO --- p.104 / Chapter 4. 3. 4 --- Conditional deletion of macrophage inhibits collagen I production in a mouse model of UUO --- p.106 / Chapter 4. 3. 5 --- Conditional deletion of macrophage inhibits renal fibrosis through reducing MMT cells in a mouse model of UUO --- p.108 / Chapter 4. 4 --- Discussion --- p.111 / Chapter 4. 5 --- Conclusion --- p.113 / Chapter CHAPTER V --- p.114 / MMT CELLS SHARE PERICYTE AND FIBROCYTE PHENOTYPES --- p.114 / Chapter 5. 1 --- Introduciton --- p.115 / Chapter 5. 2 --- Materials and methods --- p.116 / Chapter 5. 2. 1 --- Human renal biopsy tissues --- p.116 / Chapter 5. 2. 2 --- Animals and UUO mouse model --- p.116 / Chapter 5. 2. 3 --- Immunofluorescence (IF) --- p.116 / Chapter 5. 2. 4 --- Flow cytometry --- p.117 / Chapter 5. 3 --- Results --- p.119 / Chapter 5. 3. 1 --- Evidence for MMT cells co-expressing pericyte marker in the fibrotic kidney of UUO model --- p.119 / Chapter 5. 3. 2 --- Evidence for MMT cells co-expressing pericyte marker in the fibrotic kidney from patients with chronic kidney diseases --- p.124 / Chapter 5. 3. 3 --- Evidence for MMT cells co-expressing fibrocyte marker in the fibrotic kidney of UUO model --- p.126 / Chapter 5. 3. 4 --- Evidence for MMT cells co-expressing fibrocyte marker in the fibrotic kidney from patients with chronic kidney diseases --- p.129 / Chapter 5. 4 --- Dscussion --- p.131 / Chapter 5. 5 --- Conclusion --- p.133 / Chapter CHAPTER VI --- p.134 / SMAD3 MEDIATES MMT DURING RENAL FIBROSIS --- p.134 / Chapter 6. 1 --- Introduction --- p.135 / Chapter 6. 2 --- Materials and methods --- p.137 / Chapter 6. 2. 1 --- Generation of Smad3⁺/⁺ and Smad3⁻/⁻ BM-Chimeric mice --- p.137 / Chapter 6. 2. 2 --- Generation of TbRII disrupted BM macrophages and Smad3⁻/⁻ BM macrophages --- p.137 / Chapter 6. 2. 3 --- UUO mouse model --- p.138 / Chapter 6. 2. 4 --- Cell culture --- p.138 / Chapter 6. 2. 5 --- Real-time PCR --- p.139 / Chapter 6. 2. 6 --- Western blot analysis --- p.139 / Chapter 6. 2. 7 --- Immunohistochemistry (IHC) --- p.139 / Chapter 6. 2. 8 --- Immunofluorescence (IF) --- p.139 / Chapter 6. 2. 9 --- Flow cytometry --- p.140 / Chapter 6. 3 --- Result --- p.141 / Chapter 6. 3. 1 --- Genotyping of Smad3 WT and Smad3 KO mice --- p.141 / Chapter 6. 3. 2 --- Smad3 knockout inhibits TGF-β1 induced MMT in vitro --- p.142 / Chapter 6. 3. 3 --- Disruption of TbRII inhibits TGF-β1 induced MMT in vitro --- p.145 / Chapter 6. 3. 4 --- Deletion of BM Smad3 inhibits α-SMA expression in the UUO kidney --- p.147 / Chapter 6. 3. 5 --- Deletion of BM Smad3 inhibits collagen-I production in the UUO kidney --- p.149 / Chapter 6. 3. 6 --- Inhibition of MMT is a mechanism by which BM Smad3 deficiency inhibits renal fibrosis in a mouse model of UUO --- p.150 / Chapter 6. 4 --- Discussion --- p.153 / Chapter 6. 5 --- Conclusion --- p.154 / Chapter CHAPTER VII --- p.155 / SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS --- p.155 / Chapter 7. 1 --- Summary and discussion --- p.157 / Chapter 7. 1. 1 --- MMT is a major pathway of myofibroblast origin in renal fibrosis --- p.157 / Chapter 7. 1. 2 --- MMT cells shares both pericyte and fibrocyte phenotypes in renal fibrosis --- p.157 / Chapter 7. 1. 3 --- TGF-β/Smad3 is a key mechanism of MMT in renal fibrosis --- p.158 / Chapter 7. 2 --- Conclusion --- p.160 / Chapter REFERENCES --- p.161

Wu, Xinggang. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 124-161). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

L'athérosclérose est une complication cardiovasculaire majeure des maladies liées à une augmentation du stress oxydatif, comme le diabète de type 2 et le syndrome métabolique. Dans ces situations, les lipoprotéines de faible densité (LDL) subissent une oxydation et leur forte absorption induit une accumulation de cholestérol dans les macrophages sous-endothéliaux. D'autre part, les LDL oxydées sont enrichies en produits d'oxydation du cholestérol appelés oxystérols, dont certains sont impliqués dans la capacité des LDL oxydées à induire un stress oxydant cellulaire et une cytotoxicité, principalement par apoptose. Le Bis(Monoacylglycéro)Phosphate (BMP) est un phospholipide unique, localisé préférentiellement dans les endosomes tardifs, compartiment cellulaire clef dans le métabolisme du cholestérol dérivé des LDL. Lors de travaux antérieurs, l'équipe a démontré le rôle prépondérant du BMP dans la régulation de l'homéostasie du cholestérol dans les macrophages. L'objectif de ce travail a été de décrypter les mécanismes moléculaires intervenant dans le trafic intracellulaire du cholestérol. Ainsi, le BMP régule l'efflux de cholestérol par les HDL (high density lipoproteins) grâce à des mécanismes impliquant les LXRs (liver X receptors) et les transporteurs ABCA1/ABCG1 (ATP binding cassette-type A1/G1). De plus, notre étude indique que le BMP exerce également un rôle protecteur contre l'effet pro-apoptotique des LDL oxydées via la réduction de la production intracellulaire d'oxystérols. Comme une partie du trafic intracellulaire des stérols au sein des macrophages est régulé par OSBP (oxysterol binding protein) et ses protéines dérivées, les ORPs (OSBP-related proteins), nous montrons dans ce rapport que l'action de protection du BMP contre les effets cytotoxiques des oxystérols est fortement diminuée dans des cellules où la protéine ORP11 est supprimée, suggérant que le BMP exerce son rôle protecteur via un mécanisme utilisant la fonction d'ORP11 dans le transport intracellulaire de stérols / Atherosclerosis is a major cardiovascular complication in increased oxidative stress-related diseases such as type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome. In these situations, the low density lipoproteins (LDL) undergo oxidation and their high uptake induces cholesterol accumulation in subendothelial macrophages. On the other hand, oxidized LDL are enriched in cholesterol oxidation products called oxysterols, some of them are involved in the ability of oxidized LDL to induce cellular oxidative stress and cytotoxicity, mainly by apoptosis. Bis(Monoacylglycero)Phosphate (BMP) is a unique phospholipid localized preferentially in late endosomes, a central cellular compartment of LDL-cholesterol metabolism. In previous work, the team demonstrated the leading role of BMP in regulation of cholesterol homeostasis in macrophages. The aim of this work was to characterize the molecular mechanisms involved in the intracellular trafficking of cholesterol. Thus, BMP regulates cholesterol efflux to HDL (high density lipoproteins) by mechanisms involving liver X receptors (LXRs) and ABCA1/ABCG1 (ATP binding cassette-type A1/G1) transporters. Moreover, we report BMP also exerts a protective role against the pro-apoptotic effect of oxidized LDL via a reduced production of intracellular pro-apoptotic oxysterols.As part of macrophage intracellular sterol traffic is regulated by oxysterol binding protein (OSBP) and OSBP-related proteins (ORPs), we show that protective action of BMP against cytotoxic oxysterol effects in ORP11-silenced cells, was markedly abrogated, suggesting BMP exerts its protective role via a mechanism involving the function of ORP11 in intracellular sterol transport

A flagelina é reconhecida pelo receptor TLR5, e pelos receptores NLRs, NLRC4/Naip5. Estes últimos induzem ativação de caspase-1 e liberação de IL-1b e IL-18, além da morte do macrófago por piroptose. Para investigar os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos nesses processos, MOs peritoneais foram estimulados com flagelina de B. subtilis e S. typhimurium em sua forma livre (capaz de ativar TLR5), ou inserida em vesículas lipídicas (capaz de ativar os NLRs). Demonstramos que ambas as flagelinas citosólicas induzem produção de IL-1b e morte celular, embora a flagelina de S. typhimurium tenha mostrado maior potencial em induzir produção de IL-1b e IL-6 pelos MOs. Verificamos que a produção de IL-1b e lise celular de MOs se mostraram eventos subseqüentes à formação de poros na membrana celular. Embora a liberação de IL-1b após reconhecimento de ambas as flagelinas ser um fenômeno dependente do eixo NLRC4/caspase-1, a morte celular induzida pelas flagelinas citosólicas ocorre na ausência destas moléculas, ao contrário do que prevê a literatura atual. / Flagellin is recognized by TLR5, and NLRs NLRC4/Naip5. The latter induce activation of caspase-1 and release of IL-1b and IL-18, besides the death of macrophages by pyroptosis. To investigate the molecular mechanisms involved in these processes, peritoneal MOs were stimulated with flagellin from B. subtilis and S. typhimurium in its free form (activating TLR5), or inserted into lipid vesicles (able to activate NLRs). We demonstrated that both cytosolic flagellins induce the production of IL-1b and cell death, while the flagellin of S. typhimurium has shown greater potential to induce production of IL-1b and IL-6 by MOs. We found that the production of IL-1b and cell lysis by MOs are subsequent events proven by the formation of pores in cell membranes. Although the release of IL-1b after recognition of both flagellins is a phenomenon dependent on the axis NLRC4/caspase-1, cell death induced by cytosolic flagellin occurs in the absence of these molecules, unlike that provided by the current literature.

Les macrophages (Mɸ) infiltrés dans les tumeurs orchestrent les différentes étapes du développement tumoral. De par leur capacité à internaliser les nanoparticules (NPs) et leur plasticité phénotypique, ils sont impliqués dans l’efficacité thérapeutique des actifs vectorisés par un rôle de réservoir de NPs ou une modulation de leur réponse envers les cellules néoplasiques. Le calcitriol, métabolite actif de la vitamine D, possède des activités à la fois anticancéreuse et immunomodulatrice. Sa vectorisation via des NPs est une approche thérapeutique intéressante pour potentialiser ses activités tout en limitant les effets secondaires s’opposant à son utilisation clinique dans le cadre de la chimiothérapie. Une étude de formulation a permis de développer des NPs à base d’acide poly(D,L)lactique et de triglycérides (ratio 1:2) d’une taille de 200 nm et présentant une libération prolongée du calcitriol. Des études in vitro menées sur les cellules de cancer du sein MCF-7 ont permis de mettre en évidence l’avantage d’une libération prolongée du calcitriol vis-à-vis de son activité antiproliférative aboutissant à une réduction de 65% de la viabilité cellulaire après 10 jours par rapport au contrôle, non observable avec le calcitriol libre. La participation active des M? à l’activité cytotoxique du calcitriol sur les lignées cellulaires de cancer du sein MCF-7 et de leucémie MV4-11 a aussi été mise en évidence par un modèle de co-culture in vitro. En effet, les NPs de calcitriol, après internalisation par les Mɸ, provoquent une action cytotoxique prolongée contre les cellules MCF-7 en co-culture au bout de 10 jours avec seulement 20% de cellules viables vs 70% en l’absence de Mɸ / Tumor associated macrophages (Mɸ) orchestrate the different stages of tumor development. They are able to internalize nanoparticles (NPs) and are known for their phenotypic plasticity, which make them interesting targets for cancer treatment through the storage of NPs or a modulation of their activity towards the neoplastic cells. Calcitriol, the active metabolite of vitamin D, exerts both anticancer and immunomodulatory activities. Its vectorization via NPs is an interesting therapeutic approach to potentiate its activities while limiting its side effects, which hamper its current clinical use in chemotherapy. We developed poly (D, L) lactic acid and triglyceride-based NPs (1:2 ratio) measuring 200 nm and exhibiting a sustained release of calcitriol. In vitro studies, performed on breast cancer cells (MCF-7), showed the advantages of a sustained release of calcitriol regarding its antiproliferative activity with a 65%-decrease in cell viability after 10 days compared to unexposed cells, while it was unobservable for free calcitriol. The implication of Mɸ in the cytotoxic activity of calcitriol towards MCF-7 cells and MV4-11 cells (leukemia) cells has been demonstrated using an in vitro co-culture model. Calcitriol-NPs showed a sustained cytotoxic activity towards MCF-7 cells in co-cultures after 10 days, through their uptake by Mɸ, with a decrease in cell viability of 80% vs 30% in mono-cultures