Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a new technology which allows people to identify objects automatically but there is a suspicion that, if people are tracked, their privacy may be infringed. This raises questions about how far this technology is acceptable and how privacy should be protected. It is also initiated a discussion involving a wide range of technical, philosophical, political, social, cultural, and economical aspects. There is also a need to consider the ethical and theological perspectives. This dissertation takes all its relevant directions from a Judeo-Christian theological perspective. On one side the use of technology is considered, and on the other side the value of privacy, its infringements and protection are investigated. According to Jewish and Christian understanding human dignity has to be respected including the right to privacy. As a consequence of this RFID may only used for applications that do not infringe this right. This conclusion, however, is not limited to RFID; it will be relevant for other, future surveillance technologies as well. / Philosophy and Systematic Theology / M. Th. (Theological ethics)

The purpose of this study is to investigate the right to confidentiality in the context of HIV/AIDS through an interdisciplinary lens. This study indicates that whilst confidentiality is important and should be preserved in order to protect persons living with HIV/AIDS against stigmatisation, discrimination and victimisation, this should be balanced by other equally important interests, such as the protection of public health and individual third parties who may be affected by the intentional or negligent infection of others with HIV. As the consideration of the legal issues relating to confidentiality and privacy cannot be divorced from the social context in which HIV/AIDS plays out in South African communities, the study will examine, amongst others, the victimisation, discrimination and stigmatisation experienced by persons living with HIV/AIDS, followed by a critical exploration of the present legal and ethical framework governing privacy and confidentiality, including medical confidentiality, as well as the duty to disclose a positive HIV-status, in the context of HIV/AIDS. Possible limitations on the right to privacy in this context are also examined, which include, amongst others, a consideration of making HIV/AIDS notifiable diseases in South Africa. The study suggests that it is imperative that legal interventions aimed at curbing the spread of HIV will need to be mindful of the unique social, cultural and economic forces that impact on the duty to disclose a positive HIV-status to partners and other affected third parties. Insights gained from philosophical theories relating to Africanism, individualism, communitarianism and utilitarianism are valuable tools in facilitating a clearer understanding of relevant social and cultural factors that keep South African society locked in the present stalemate with regard to the disclosure of HIV status. / Public, Constitutional, and International law / LLD

This diploma thesis deals with intelligence gathering and its international law aspects. The main research question of this diploma thesis is as follows: is the intelligence gathering legal from the point of view of international law? In light of recent scandals and accusations of secret services of illegal espionage, it is very important to find an answer to this question. There are almost no relevant Czech academic sources about this issue and foreign sources are rather contradictory. Included in the main research question are number of additional issues, such as: are there differences in legality between intelligence gathering during peacetime or wartime? What are the international law sources regarding espionage? Is the work of secret services affected by international law? Is international law relevant to espionage? As part of the introduction the diploma thesis outlines various intelligence gathering methods and defines relevant terms. The diploma thesis also addresses the issue of compatibility of espionage with the international law principle of non-intervention and state sovereignty. Next, three current approaches to the question of legality of espionage are presented to the reader and one new approach is introduced. Furthermore, the international implications of the unlawful behavior of...

Enfant de la jurisprudence, le droit à l'image est une prérogative attachée à l'individu qui a longtemps été discutée. Si aujourd'hui une certaine stabilité théorique a été trouvée, celle-ci demeure néanmoins relative du fait de sa non-reconnaissance par la législation française. Il recouvre différentes réalités et ainsi concerner l'image d'une oeuvre, celle d'un bien mobilier ou immobilier, ou encore, être relatif aux traits des individus eux-mêmes. C'est sur cette dernière dimension que la présente étude a entendu s'attarder, celle-ci présentant une certaine complexité juridique liée à la défaillance législative et à la place prépondérante de la jurisprudence au sein du droit à l'image. Le choc résultant de la rencontre entre un droit théorique, dépourvu de régime juridique officiel, et la pratique judiciaire conduit de facto, à une instabilité et une insécurité juridique avérées, en incompatibilité totale avec la notion de droit de la personnalité telle qu'énoncée par la théorie des droits de l'Homme.Les interrogations induites par cette étude ont abouti à des conclusions quelque peu funestes. Tout d'abord, le droit à l'image demeure fondé sur un régime hybride dont la nature apparaît être, plus que jamais, juridiquement contestable et largement contestée. Ensuite, la seconde conclusion met en évidence la place trop importante laissée aux juridictions en cette matière, ce qui conduit à des disparités inconciliables avec les notions d'égalité, d'impartialité et de fiabilité. Dès lors, une révision globale du droit à l'image, et la mise en place d'un régime juridique légal autonome semblent être aussi bien nécessaires qu'inévitables. / Image rights are a concept derived from Nineteenth Century jurisprudence and have been mutating for a long time. If some kind of theoretical stability has now been established, it remains only relative because image rights are in fact excluded from French legislation. Image rights bring together different realities. They could concern the image of a work and derive from copyright, thereby concerning property law; or concern the features of individuals themselves.This study will deal with this second aspect, presenting a degree of legal complexity linked to inadequate legislation and the dominant role of jurisprudence in image rights. The shock of the encounter between a theoretical right having no proper juridical status and judicial practice leads de facto to evident legal uncertainty and instability which are completely incompatible with the notion of rights inherent to the human being as outlined by human rights theory. The questions raised by this study, which involve both the imperfections of the legal framework conferred on image rights and existing incompatibilities between theory and practice, have reached unsatisfactory conclusions. To being with, the first conclusion underlines that image rights remain based on a hybrid which seems more than ever contestable, and often contested, from a juridical point of view. And secondly, the excessively important role left to jurisdictions in image rights leads to disparities which are inconsistent with notions of equality, impartiality and dependability. Therefore, a comprehensive review of image rights, and the establishment of an independent statutory legal regime appear to be both necessary and inevitable.

This thesis discusses surveillance in the work environment. The topic is too extensive, that´s the reason its focus is mainly on electronic employee monitoring. The basic concepts are explained in the beginning of the thesis, which is subsequently followed by a simple survey oriented on the opinions on employee surveillance. The center of this thesis is an analysis of legal, technical and ethical aspects, which also reviews different monitoring practices. Identified practices are used for defining monitoring possible scenarios. The contribution of this work is the evaluation of employee monitoring practices and establishing a ranking of monitoring tools that can serve as a decision making tool for organizations. This thesis uses not only theoretical knowledge from literature, but also incoporates comments and opinions from experts.

Le salarié était destiné à devenir un citoyen dans l’entreprise. Titulaire de droits fondamentaux opposables aux pouvoirs étatiques dans la cité, il semblait normal qu’il puisse aussi les exercer devant la puissance patronale. Ces garanties sont en effet intrinsèques à tout être humain, universelles et inaliénables. Sous l’effet hiérarchique des instruments prééminents qui les consacrent, les droits et libertés se sont introduits au sein de la relation d’emploi. La nullité des normes du droit du travail qui sont incompatibles sera déclarée. La hiérarchisation des sources en droit du travail le réclame. Ces droits et libertés sont formulés en termes généraux et abstraits, ce qui augure mal de leur usage immédiat dans le monde du travail. L’activité interprétative du juge apparaît indispensable. Dans sa quête du sens des libertés dans le travail, la méthode contextuelle qu’il privilégie débouche sur une aporie. Elle l’incite à prendre en considération l’ensemble du contexte normatif de la relation d’emploi. Les sources propres au droit du travail dictent ainsi le contenu des droits de la personne et posent des conditions à leur exercice en milieu de travail. Elles justifient également de nombreuses restrictions, voire suppressions, apportées par l’employeur. Les mutations subies par la liberté d’expression et le droit à la vie privée des salariés confirment l’effet réducteur de la relation d’emploi sur les protections offertes par la Charte québécoise. Cette façon de juger renverse la pyramide des normes juridiques. Le noyau intangible de ces garanties est affaibli, car les libertés du travailleur ne possèdent plus la même signification que celles des autres citoyens. Des violations se multiplient sous le regard complice du juge, du fait que les intérêts purement privés de l’entreprise, axés sur la productivité et le profit, reçoivent une légitimité avérée. Le rapport de force et les pouvoirs de la figure patronale se fortifient par l’entremise du contentieux des droits fondamentaux en emploi. Le contrôle exercé par l’autorité patronale s’étend parfois jusque dans la vie personnelle du travailleur et compromet la jouissance des libertés hors du travail. Salarié dans l’entreprise, l’individu le demeure désormais dans la cité. S’impose alors la recherche d’un cadre d’analyse plus respectueux de la cohérence du système juridique et favorisant l’épanouissement des droits et libertés du travailleur. Les statuts de salarié et de personne humaine pourront enfin être réconciliés. / Citizenship in the workplace was destined to become a reality. As a holder of fundamental rights against state powers in society, it seemed normal that the employee could also oppose them to employers’ powers, as these guarantees are inherent to all human beings, universal and inalienable. Statutes granting a preponderance to human rights and freedoms have definitively contributed to their introduction into the employment relationship. Therefore, provisions of labour legislation or workplace rules that are inconsistent with human rights will be declared null and void. The hierarchy of sources of labour law requires it. Rights and freedoms are stated in abstract and general terms, which makes it difficult to apply them instantly in the labour sphere. Judicial interpretation appears necessary to clarify what individual freedoms mean in the workplace. However, a contextual interpretation leads to aporia. This approach encourages the decision-maker to consider the whole normative context of the employment relationship. Specific sources of labour law dictate the content of human rights and set conditions to their exercise by the salaried person. They also justify many restrictions, or even deletions, imposed by the employer. The significant changes in the scope of workers’ freedom of speech and right to privacy confirm that the employment relationship has a reductive effect on the protections offered by the Quebec Charter. This kind of reasoning inverts the hierarchical structure of the legal system. The core of human rights and freedoms is weakened. It no longer has the same meaning for workers as for other citizens. Moreover, the unchallenged legitimacy of business interests, motivated by the increase of productivity and profit, multiplies violations of the workers’ fundamental rights. The employer’s prerogatives and management rights are strengthened through the human rights case law in the field of employment. In some instances, the employer’s control can extend into the employee’s personal life and thus compromise the enjoyment of freedom beyond work. The employee status now follows the individual into his civil life. The search for an analytical framework that is more respectful of the coherence of the legal system and which fully ensures the protection and the development of human rights and freedoms at work is essential. The status of worker and of human being will finally be reconciled.

With the increased global infringement of personal rights, it is necessary to be aware of the protection in the different legal systems, especially Anglo-American. Even if the consequences are to be felt in the domestic legal order, the enforceability is recognized under the foreign legal order. The protection is worldwide and through the case law from the European Court of Human Rights the two legal systems - Common law and the Civil Law are penetrating the legislation and the case law in respect of the institute of the protection of personal rights. The doctorate thesis presents the complex introduction to the area of protection of personal rights in the Common law, especially in English law, Commonwealth countries and USA that has not been presented yet for the Czech legal professionals. The thesis explains theoretical concept of the Common law and its background for the purpose of explanation of differences of examined legal orders. The institute is explained on the key historical case law that led to establish the Common law principles. The thesis uses the current and topical legal cases and problems that the orders face in the 21st Century.

The protection of Indigenous women in the context of Inter-American Human Rights System Abstract The aim of the thesis is to identify the means of protection of Indigenous women's rights. The author rises the subsequent questions: (i) which documents of this regional system offers protection to Indigenous women and based on what reason; (ii) what bodies operate in the Inter-American framework and Indigenous women can turn on them; (iii) what violations of rights have been addressed in the jurisprudency of the Inter-American Court of Human rights and what meaning does it have regarding to protection of Indigenous women? The first part contains the crucial documents in the topic of protection of indigenous women's rights. The author refers to the role and relation of both basic regional catalogues of human rights, American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Men and American Convention on Human Rights. She also refers to a quite recent document, American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples that offers expressis verbis some protection to Indigenous women. Apart from that, other documents providing special protection to certain groups are analysed: Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women, Inter-American Convention on Forced Dissappearence...

Afrikaans text / The Canadian and South African legal systems established equivalent constitutional values and principles pertaining to searches conducted with or without a valid search warrant. It creates the basis for a comparative study on this particular aspect. The Supreme Court of Canada held in R v A. M 2008 S.C.C 19 random sniffer dog searches conducted without neither a reasonable suspicion nor any legislative authority on learners enrolled in public schools, is unconstitutional due to its infringement of a learner's reasonable expectation to privacy, as protected in section 8 of the Canadian Charter of rights and Freedoms. South African learners are randomly search by law enforcement officers by using sniffer dogs for purposes of detecting the possession of illegal drugs in instances without neither a reasonable suspicion nor statutory authority. The search is subsequently conducted in terms of the common law. The common law is not regarded as law of general application to limit a fundamental right in terms of the limitation clause. By taking into consideration the ratio in R v A. M (supra) the conclusion is subsequently that random sniffer dog searches conducted on learners in South African public schools, without neither a reasonable suspicion nor statutory authority, is unconstitutional which infringes section 14 of the Constitution of South Africa of 1996. / Die basis vir hierdie studie is ontleen aan die ooreenstemmende vereistes en beginsels in die Kanadese en Suid Afrikaanse reg ten aansien van deursoekings met of sonder 'n wettige lasbrief uitgevoer. In die Kanadese beslissing van R v A.M 2008 SCC 19 is die grondwetlikheid van ewekansige deursoekings met behuip van snuffelhonde op leerders sonder statutere magtiging uitgevoer, deur die Supreme Court of Canada as ongrondwetlik bevind aangesien 'n leerder wel oor 'n redelike verwagting op privaatheid beskik. Indien leerders sonder 'n redelike vermoede en statutere magtiging met behuip van snuffelhonde deursoek word, geskied dit ingevolge die gemenereg en dit word nie beskou as 'n algemeen geldende reg om 'n fundamentele reg kragtens die beperkingsklousule te beperk nie. Met inagneming van die ratio in R v A.M (supra) kan daar dus tot die gevolgtrekking gekom word dat ewekansige deursoekings met behulp van snuffelhonde op Suid Afrikanse leerders in die afwesigheid van 'n redelike vermoede asook sonder statutere magtiging uitgevoer, tans ongrondwetlike optrede daarstel wat op artikel 14 van die Grondwet van 1996 inbreuk maak. / Law (College) / LL.M.

Since the US National Security Agency’s former contractor Edward Snowden exposed the Agency’s mass surveillance, the EU has been making a series of attempts toward a more safeguarded and stricter path concerning its data privacy protection. On 8 April 2014, the Court of Justice of the European Union (the CJEU) invalidated the EU Data Retention Directive 2006/24/EC on the basis of incompatibility with the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (the Charter). After this judgment, the CJEU examined the legality of the Safe Harbour Agreement, which had been the main legal basis for transfers of personal data from the EU to the US under Decision 2000/520/EC. Subsequently, on 6 October 2015, in the case of Schrems v Data Protection Commissioner, the CJEU declared the Safe Harbour Decision invalid. The ground for the Court’s judgment was the fact that the Decision enabled interference, by US public authorities, with the fundamental rights to privacy and personal data protection under Article 7 and 8 of the Charter, when processing the personal data of EU citizens. According to the judgment, this interference has been beyond what is strictly necessary and proportionate to the protection of national security and the persons concerned were not offered any administrative or judicial means of redress enabling the data relating to them to be accessed, rectified or erased. The Court’s analysis of the Safe Harbour was borne out of the EU Commission’s own previous assessments. Consequently, since the transfers of personal data between the EU and the US can no longer be carried out through the Safe Harbour, the EU legislature is left with the task to create a safer option, which will guarantee that the fundamental rights to privacy and protection of personal data of the EU citizens will be respected. However, although the EU is the party dictating the terms for these transatlantic transfers of personal data, the current provisions of the US law are able to provide for derogations from every possible renewed agreement unless they become compatible with the EU data privacy law. Moreover, as much business is at stake and prominent US companies are involved in this battle, the pressure toward the US is not only coming from the EU, but some American companies are also taking the fight for EU citizens’ right to privacy and protection of their personal data.