The coherent semantics of the sowing imagery (1Cor 15,36–44) suggest that heavenly bodies (v. 40–41) emerge from a process of body transformation, analogous to plants and animate beings (v. 37–39). The idea that the deceased are transformed into stars and thereby obtain a particular form of existence is widely attested in the mythography and in epitaphs of antiquity. In contrast to pagan conceptions about the dead permanently returning into celestial spheres, the heavenly bodies according to Paul represent a postmortem, albeit a pre-resurrection, stage in the development of human bodies. Accordingly, the heavenly body represents an intermediary ontological mode between the animated body of earthly creatures and the spiritual body of resurrection.

Denna uppsats ämnar att undersöka den språkliga och visuella utformningen av White Guide- restaurangers menyer med avsikt att få en djupare förståelse för vissa återkommande drag som kan kopplas till restauranger med denna höga kvalitetsklassificering. Forskningsfrågorna för studien lyder: Vilka visuella skillnader och likheter, när det kommer till typografi, färgsättning, användning av ikoner samt placering av text, finns det mellan de utvalda restaurangernas menyer? Finns det några språkliga skillnader och likheter ifråga om beskrivningar av tillagningsmetod, sensoriska uttryck samt uttryck för ursprung, mellan menyerna? Materialet som analyseras har avgränsats till sex olika menyer tillhörande restauranger inom kategorin mycket god klass i White Guide 2020. Menyerna analyseras dels genom en visuell analys med hjälp av sociosemiotisk teori samt genom en språklig analys som bygger på traditionell lexikal taxonomisk semantik. I den visuella analysen undersöks typografi, färgsättning, ikoner samt textens placering i menyerna och i den språkliga analysen undersöks olika uttryck för tillagningsmetoder, sensoriska uttryck samt uttryck för ursprung i menyernas maträttsbeskrivningar. Resultatet visar att menyer inom denna kategori i White Guide skiljer sig mycket åt både språkligt och visuellt även om vissa likheter har påfunnits. Alla analyserade menyer innehåller ord som betecknar tillagningsmetoder och trots att antalet skiljer sig mycket åt mellan menyerna är tillagningsmetoderna ändå flest till antalet bland samtliga språkliga analyskategorier. Många typsnittsvarianter förekommer i de olika menyerna även om typsnittsantalet inom en meny vanligen är mellan ett till tre. Marginaljusterad eller centrerad text är det absolut vanligaste i menyerna och en stor majoritet av alla menyer har en ljus bakgrund med en mörk text, där få färger och dova färger är vanligast. Att använda ikoner som fotografier eller andra symboler förekommer även om det sker sparsamt.

This paper concerns the semantic branch of meta-ethics, and examines a version of so called semantic pluralism advocated by Michael Gill. Briefly put, Gill suggests that ordinary people’s usage of moral terms is rather messy in the sense that the meaning of moral terms can vary not only between different people, but also for one and the same person in different contexts. Such variability in word-meaning is explained by his assumption that people’s meta-ethical commitments are part of their moral thought and language, which is to say that their meta-ethical commitments have implications for the meaning of moral terms. In this paper I pursue two objectives. The first is exegetical and aim to clarify how Gill’s semantic pluralism in general, and his Indeterminacy- and Variability theses in particular, are intended to be understood—specifically in relation to the cognitivist/non-cognitivist debate. The second objective is argumentative. I first present and evaluate an objection to Gill’s semantic pluralism from Walter Sinnott-Armstrong who argue that Gill’s Variability thesis implies that interlocutors with different meta-ethical commitments are talking past each other rather than having genuine first order moral agreements and disagreements. I then argue that a similar problem occurs also for certain second order moral disagreements, particularly those in which moral terms are used rather than mentioned. I then argue that this is problematic not only on independent grounds, but also because it is inconsistent with the very assumptions Gill makes to support his view. My argument therefore appears forceful by Gill’s own lights. Combined, Sinnott-Armstrong’s objection and my own leads me to conclude that Gill’s semantic pluralism does not look promising.

Results of psychological experiments have shown that humans make assumptions, which are not necessarily valid, that they are influenced by their background knowledge and that they reason non-monotonically. These observations show that classical logic does not seem to be adequate for modeling human reasoning. Instead of assuming that humans do not reason logically at all, we take the view that humans do not reason classical logically. Our goal is to model episodes of human reasoning and for this purpose we investigate the so-called Weak Completion Semantics. The Weak Completion Semantics is a Logic Programming approach and considers the least model of the weak completion of logic programs under the three-valued Łukasiewicz logic. As the Weak Completion Semantics is relatively new and has not yet been extensively investigated, we first motivate why this approach is interesting for modeling human reasoning. After that, we show the formal correspondence to the already established Stable Model Semantics and Well-founded Semantics. Next, we present an extension with an additional context operator, that allows us to express negation as failure. Finally, we propose a contextual abductive reasoning approach, in which the context of observations is relevant. Some properties do not hold anymore under this extension. Besides discussing the well-known psychological experiments Byrne’s suppression task and Wason’s selection task, we investigate an experiment in spatial reasoning, an experiment in syllogistic reasoning and an experiment that examines the belief-bias effect. We show that the results of these experiments can be adequately modeled under the Weak Completion Semantics. A result which stands out here, is the outcome of modeling the syllogistic reasoning experiment, as we have a higher prediction match with the participants’ answers than any of twelve current cognitive theories. We present an abstract evaluation system for conditionals and discuss well-known examples from the literature. We show that in this system, conditionals can be evaluated in various ways and we put up the hypothesis that humans use a particular evaluation strategy, namely that they prefer abduction to revision. We also discuss how relevance plays a role in the evaluation process of conditionals. For this purpose we propose a semantic definition of relevance and justify why this is preferable to a exclusively syntactic definition. Finally, we show that our system is more general than another system, which has recently been presented in the literature. Altogether, this thesis shows one possible path on bridging the gap between Cognitive Science and Computational Logic. We investigated findings from psychological experiments and modeled their results within one formal approach, the Weak Completion Semantics. Furthermore, we proposed a general evaluation system for conditionals, for which we suggest a specific evaluation strategy. Yet, the outcome cannot be seen as the ultimate solution but delivers a starting point for new open questions in both areas.

The capability of changing beliefs upon new information in a rational and efficient way is crucial for an intelligent agent. Belief change therefore is one of the central research fields in Artificial Intelligence (AI) for over two decades. In the AI literature, two different kinds of belief change operations have been intensively investigated: belief update, which deal with situations where the new information describes changes of the world; and belief revision, which assumes the world is static. As another important research area in AI, reasoning about actions mainly studies the problem of representing and reasoning about effects of actions. These two research fields are closely related and apply a common underlying principle, that is, an agent should change its beliefs (knowledge) as little as possible whenever an adjustment is necessary. This lays down the possibility of reusing the ideas and results of one field in the other, and vice verse. This thesis aims to develop a general framework and devise computational models that are applicable in reasoning about actions. Firstly, I shall propose a new framework for iterated belief revision by introducing a new postulate to the existing AGM/DP postulates, which provides general criteria for the design of iterated revision operators. Secondly, based on the new framework, a concrete iterated revision operator is devised. The semantic model of the operator gives nice intuitions and helps to show its satisfiability of desirable postulates. I also show that the computational model of the operator is almost optimal in time and space-complexity. In order to deal with the belief change problem in multi-agent systems, I introduce a concept of mutual belief revision which is concerned with information exchange among agents. A concrete mutual revision operator is devised by generalizing the iterated revision operator. Likewise, a semantic model is used to show the intuition and many nice properties of the mutual revision operator, and the complexity of its computational model is formally analyzed. Finally, I present a belief update operator, which takes into account two important problems of reasoning about action, i.e., disjunctive updates and domain constraints. Again, the updated operator is presented with both a semantic model and a computational model.

Of key importance for metamodelling are appropriate modelling formalisms. Most metamodelling languages permit the development of metamodels that specify tree-structured models enriched with semantics like constraints, references and operations, which extend the models to graphs. However, often the semantics of these semantic constructs is not part of the metamodel, i.e., it is unspeci ed. Therefore, we propose to reuse well-known compiler construction techniques to specify metamodel semantics. To be more precise, we present the application of reference attribute grammars (RAGs) for metamodel semantics and analyse commonalities and differences. Our focus is to pave the way for such a combination, by exemplifying why and how the metamodelling and attribute grammar (AG) world can be combined and by investigating a concrete example - the combination of the Eclipse Modelling Framework (EMF) and JastAdd, an AG evaluator generator.

Stärker verteilte Systeme in der Planung und Produktion verbessern die Agilität und Wartbarkeit von Einzelkomponenten, wobei gleichzeitig jedoch deren Vernetzung untereinander steigt. Das stellt wiederum neue Anforderungen an die semantische Beschreibung der Komponenten und deren Verbindungen, wofür Informations- und Datenmodelle unabdingbar sind. Der Lebenszyklus dieser Modelle ist dabei von Änderungen geprägt, mit denen umgegangen werden muss. Heutige Revisionsverwaltungssysteme, die die industriell geforderte Nachvollziehbarkeit bereitstellen könnten, sind allerdings nicht auf die speziellen Anforderungen der Informations- und Datenmodelle zugeschnitten, wodurch Möglichkeiten einer konsistenten Evolution verringert werden. Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurde ein Revision Management System zur durchgängigen Unterstützung der Evolution von Informations- und Datenmodellen entwickelt, das Revisionsverwaltungs- und Evolutionsmechanismen integriert. Besonderheit ist hierbei die technologieunabhängige mathematische und semantische Beschreibung, die eine Überführung des Konzepts in unterschiedliche Technologien ermöglicht. Beispielhaft wurde das Konzept für das Semantic Web als Weiterentwicklung des Open-Source-Projektes R43ples umgesetzt. / The increased distribution of systems in planning and production leads to improved agility and maintainability of individual components, whereas concurrently their cross-linking increases. This causes new requirements for the semantic description of components and links for which information and data models are indispensable. The life cycle of those models is characterized by changes that must be dealt with. However, today’s revision control systems would provide the required industrial traceability but are not enough for the specific requirements of information and data models. As a result, possibilities for a consistent evolution are reduced. Within this thesis a revision management system was developed, integrating revision control and evolution mechanisms to support the evolution of information and data models. The key is the technology-independent mathematical and sematic description allowing the application of the concept within different technologies. Exemplarily the concept was implemented for the Semantic Web as an extension of the open source project R43ples.

I denna uppsats undersöks hur man genom produktdesign kan få enbättre förståelse för hur stolar och klappstolar tolkas. Syftet har varit attgenom en förståelse för användarens tolkning, ge möjlighet att skapa enny arketyp till klappstolar. Studien är ett samarbete med IKEA ofSweden där de har varit intresserade att undersöka möjligheten för en nyarketyp i deras klappstolssortiment. För att få en inblick i användarenstolkning tar studien avstamp i teori kring användarcentrerad design,semiotik och affordance. Metoder för att samla empirisk data består avexpertintervjuer och workshop. Resultatet av studien visade att en stol iträ med ett statiskt uttryck och mjuka former tolkas som Stabil, Gedigen,Bekväm, Mjuk, Varm och Inbjudande. Slutresultatet och designbidragetmynnade ut till en arketyp applicerad på IKEAs stol STEFAN. Därresultatet från workshopen och IKEAs mål lyfts upp med få synligabeslag och flertalet formgivningsmöjligheter. Uppsatsen avslutas med endiskussion som belyser vikten av att som designer förstå konstruktionoch produktion vid formgivning, särskilt när arbetet sker utifrån en sattbudget. / This essay examines how product design can give a better understanding ofhow chairs and folding chairs are interpreted. The purpose has been tothrough an understanding of the user's interpretation, provide theopportunity to create a new archetype for folding chairs. The study is acollaboration with IKEA of Sweden where they have been interested ininvestigating the possibility of a new archetype in their folding chair range.To gain an insight into the user's interpretation, the study is based on theoryaround user-centered design, semiotics and affordance. Methods that havebeen used for collecting empirical data consisted of expert interviews andworkshops. The results of the study showed that a wooden chair with a staticexpression and soft shapes is interpreted as Sturdy, Solid, Comfortable,Smooth, Warm and Inviting. The end result and the design contributionresulted in an archetype applied to IKEA's chair STEFAN. Where the resultsfrom the workshop and IKEA's goals are highlighted with few visiblefolding components and various design options. The essay ends with adiscussion that highlights the importance of understanding construction andproduction as a designer, especially when working with a budget.

Diese Dissertation untersucht die Argument- und Ereignisstruktur von Resultativkonstruktion (z.B., Peter wischte den Tisch sauber.) aus der Perspektive zweier serialisierender, wenig untersuchter und bedrohter Ozeanischen Sprachen, Daakaka und Samoanisch, in welchen sowohl die Manner- als auch die Result-Bedeutungskomponente durch verbale Prädikate ausgedrückt wird. Diese Beobachtung steht im Kontrast zu nicht-serialisierenden Sprachen, wie dem Englischem, in welchen nur einer der beiden Bedeutungskomponenten durch das Hauptverb ausgedrückt wird. Im Zuge einer Untersuchung der mor-phosyntaktischen semantischen Eigenschaften zweier Typen von Resultativkonstruktionen, resultative Sekundärprädikation und die means-Konstruktion, entwickelt diese Arbeit einen neuen konfigurationel-len Ansatz innerhalb der Distributed Morphology, in welchem sprachübergreifende Variation als Inter-aktion von morphosyntaktischer und semantischer Komposition der jeweiligen Bedeutungskomponen-ten in Abhängigkeit von sprachspezifischen Restriktionen auf Wurzelbedeutung und Argumentstruktur beschrieben werden kann. Mit Hilfe eigener Feldforschung zeige ich, dass trotz der oberflächlichen Unterschiede zwischen serialisierenden und nicht-serialisierenden Sprachen Ozeanische Resultativkon-struktionen die zugrundeliegende Struktur der means-Konstruktionen aufweisen, in welchen das Man-nerverb an das kausative Hauptverb adjungiert wird und das darin enthaltende, unterspezifizierte kausa-tive Ereignis spezifiziert. Folglich unterscheiden sich beide Sprachtypen nicht signifikant in ihrer mor-phosyntaktischen und semantischen Komposition mit weitreichenden Implikationen für eine sprachübergreifende Typologie von Resultativkonstruktionen. / This dissertation approaches the event and argument structure of resultative construction (e.g., Peter wiped the table clean) from the perspective of two understudied and endangered Oceanic languages, Daakaka and Samoan, in which both the manner and result components are realized by verbal predicates, i.e. resultative serial verb constructions (RSVCs). This observation contrasts with non-serializing languages, such as English, in which only one of the two meaning components is expressed by the main verb. By examining the morphosyntactic and semantic properties of two types of resultative construc-tions, namely resultative secondary predication and means constructions, I develop a novel configurational analysis within the generative framework of Distributed Morphology that models cross-linguistic variation in terms of the morphosyntactic size and the semantic composition of the respective meaning components and their interaction with idiosyncratic requirements on roots and argument structure. Based on original fieldwork, I demonstrate that despite the superficial differences in categorial status, Oceanic RSVCs are an instance of the means construction, in which the manner verb directly adjoins to a causative verb modifying the underspecified causing event entailed in the event structure of the causa-tive predicate. Consequently, serializing and non-serializing languages do not vary significantly in their morphosyntactic and semantic composition with further implications for the typology of resultatives in the world’s languages.

Diese Dissertation ist ein Beitrag zur Analyse von psych(-ologischen) Verben, einer Verbklasse, die in den letzten 35 Jahren umfangreiche Forschung erfahren hat. Diese hat unter anderem ergeben, dass Psychverben auch deshalb so besonders sind, weil sie ein sehr heterogenes Aspektprofil aufweisen. Darum beschränkt sich die Dissertation auf rein stative (Verwendungen von) Psychverben, wodurch der Weg für einen kontrastiven Vergleich mit anderen stativen Verben geebnet und eine innovative Perspektive auf Psychverben eröffnet wird. Der Vergleich konzentriert sich auf sog. 'Objekteffekte' und untersucht ihr Vorhandensein in den verschiedenen Gruppen von stativen Psych- und nicht-Psychverben. Objekteffekte beschreiben den Wechsel von einem 'Individual-level'- zu einem 'Stage-level'-Status, ausgelöst durch einen Definitheitswechsel des Objekts. Es wird ein experimentelles Design entwickelt, mit dem solche aspektuellen Bedeutungsverschiebungen empirisch erfassbar sind, sowie Daten für deutsche und englische Verben gesammelt. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen, dass Objekteffekte in beiden Sprachen bei kanonischen stativen Verben außerhalb der Psychdomäne vorhanden sind, während sie in allen Gruppen von stativen Psychverben fehlen. Wir führen diesen semantischen Unterschied auf eine grundlegend andere Beschaffenheit der syntaktischen Struktur von Psychverben zurück. Wir zeigen, dass Objekteffekte eine transitive Struktur voraussetzen und schlussfolgern, dass Psychverben eine unakkusative Syntax aufweisen. Darüber hinaus deuten die gewonnenen Daten auch auf subtilere aspektuelle Bedeutungsunterschiede zwischen den Untergruppen der stativen Psychverben hin. Gleichzeitig leistet unsere Studie einen Beitrag zur Erforschung von Objekteffekten, indem eine empirische Grundlage für eine bisher ausschließlich theoretische Diskussion geschaffen wird. Diese empirische Evidenz ermöglicht weitere Schlussfolgerungen zur Quelle von Objekteffekten sowie deren Eigenschaften. / This dissertation aims to contribute to the ongoing discussion on how to syntactically analyze psych(-ological) verbs. This verb class cross-linguistically displays unexpected argument structure alternations associated with a number of syntactic peculiarities, which have given rise to a large body of literature over the past 35 years. For our research, we pursue a new angle by restricting ourselves to the stative (uses of) psych verbs and treating them as a subclass of stative verbs, thereby paving the way for a contrastive comparison with stative verbs outside the psych domain. The comparison focuses on so-called 'object effects' and examines their presence in the different groups of stative psych and non-psych verbs. Object effects describe the shift of an individual-level to a stage-level status induced by a change in the definiteness of the object DP. We develop an experimental design able to empirically detect such aspectual shifts and collect data for German and English verbs. The results confirm that object effects are present in both languages in canonical stative verbs outside the psych domain, whereas they are absent in all groups of stative psych verbs. We attribute this behavior to fundamental differences in the internal constitution of psych verbs. Based on the insight that object effects require a transitive structure, we conclude that stative psych verbs generally exhibit an unaccusative syntax. Our findings also point to finer-grained interpretational patterns in the subclasses of stative psych verbs, consistent with previous observations of systematic semantic-syntactic differences. At the same time, our study contributes to the study of object effects by providing an empirical basis for a previously purely theoretical discussion. This empirical evidence allows for further conclusions about the source of object effects as well as their properties.