This applied dissertation was a study of the relationship between leader-member exchange (LMX) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in a federal government organization in Washington, DC. As a result of the organization’s business and leadership challenges, understanding the relationship between a leader and a follower and extra-role behaviors may help to understand how high-quality relationships are developed with staff members that are productive and motivate staff to extend their efforts beyond normal expectations. Productive high-quality relationships demonstrate loyalty, consideration, and affect towards the organization and its leaders. Understanding the relationship between LMX and OCB in a federal government organization may help to produce greater awareness of the factors that lead to high-quality leader-member relationships. Knowing the characteristics of high-quality relationships may promote extra-role behaviors enabling increased job satisfaction and greater results. Federal organizations find that many employees have low job satisfaction. In addition, only 38% of federal workers believe leaders generate high levels of commitment. The researcher employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design that included surveys and interviews. The sample study was composed of 50 paired dyads from 433 employees of the target federal agency selected using convenience sampling. Survey instruments were used for demographics, LMX, and OCB to gather data. The results from the LMX and OCB instruments were used to formulate interview questions for a select group from the core sample represented by the top and bottom 5% of raw survey score totals. The targeted federal organization should benefit from this study. The results showed how differences in the quality of the relationship between a leader and a follower related to OCB, or extra-role behaviors and led to recommendations on leader-subordinate relationships.

It is the purpose of this research to examine the interactions between organizations and the work of coordinating agencies in influencing those interactions using social exchange theory. A model was developed, incorporating elements of exchange theory, and the components of that model examined in the community. Techniques of change and the outcomes of activities of the coordinating agency were examined in an effort to develop a "case study" of a coordinating agency's activity in the community. Historically, social services were provided in the community through informal, often familial, networks. With the urbanization of society, social services have become more formalized and specialized with a remarkable increase in the number of individual agencies. Movement from a "growth" to a scarcity economy and new federalism as well as concern with duplication, overlap, and gaps in services have led to an interest in the coordination of these activities. The Area Agency on Aging, considered by many to be a forerunner to the Allied Services Act, was implemented in 1973 by the federal government for the purpose of coordinating services to the elderly in the community. The goal of the Area Agency is the development of a comprehensive coordinated community service system. The activities of six such coordinating agencies as well as the social service organizations in their areas were studied to determine the explanatory value of social exchange theory. Additionally, attitudes of service providers toward various tactics for community change as well as the perceived outcomes of coordinating agency activities were investigated. The study of the Area Agency on Aging as a coordinating agency in the community was accomplished in two waves of data collection. The first, consisting of indepth interviews with 84 individuals in six areas, took place from May through July of 1975. The second wave involved indepth interviews and a mailed survey. Data were collected from 191 individuals in 126 agencies in three areas, urban, rural and urban/rural mixed. The data were coded and analyzed by computer to determine trends and relationships. The interview schedules were analyzed for specific cases. These objective and subjective data were used to "reconstruct" this study of interaction and coordination. A model, Organizational Interaction Model, was derived utilizing social exchange theory. This model contains the elements of commodities: funding, information, access to influentials, clients, staff and technology; valuing criteria: integration, status, world view, autonomy, domain and power; and arenas of exchange: planning, contracts and letters of agreement, hearings and meetings, evaluation and monitoring, and client transfers. These elements were examined, and their explanatory value for activities in the community involving organizations and coordinating agencies was determined. Change techniques, involving varying types as well as levels of intervention, were studied in terms of their perceived appropriateness by community organizations. The data suggested changes in activities of coordinating agencies, social planners, and makers of policy. Perceived outcomes of coordinating agency activity over the past three years show positive impacts in the community generally, though individual impacts vary. Finally, the implications of these findings are discussed for coordinating agencies as well as local and federal policy makers, with suggestions for future research. Social exchange theory offers rich ground for the study of community service systems and the coordination of interactions within corrrnunities.

Purpose: Leadership is one of the very important as well as decisive factors in business environment. Following the Blau’s social exchange theory, this study discussed to analyze the despotic leadership effect on employees' job satisfaction in the Pakistani context. This research also analyzes the indirect association of despotic leadership and job satisfaction through the third variable named, emotional exhaustion (as mediator).  Method: Data is collected through an online self-administrated survey from employees working in the hotel industry of Pakistan. Descriptive analysis and inferential statistics were used. Moreover, conditional process technique was used introduced by Preacher and Hayes. Results: In conclusion, this study illustrates that despotic leadership style of the employees in hotel industry is a main antecedent of poor job satisfaction of the employees and this low job satisfaction becomes More low when employee experience the feelings of emotional exhaustion. Importantly, in this study it is found that emotional exhaustion does not mediate the relationship between despotic leadership and job satisfaction.  Originality: This research had added value to the existing literature on negative supervision in the hospitality sector, specifically in Pakistan. This has suggested organizations to identify prevalent despotic leaders and establish accountability mechanisms within the organizations.

Title: The implied contracts. Nurses experience of psychological contracts.          The purpose of the study was to investigate nurses experience of the psychological contract. An inductive thematic analysis was used where nine semi-structured were conducted with nurses at a hospital in Sweden. The study resulted in six main themes: Clear tasks, Content of the employment relationship, The role of communication, Well-being, Responsiveness and Lack of resources. The working days were regulated by the employment contract, but extra tasks may appear and those were regulated by the psychological contract. The nurses’ expectations in their employment were honesty, responsiveness, and a knowledgeable manager. The communication with the manager was perceived as good, but previous experiences show poor communication. Good well-being in the nurses’ department contributed to the nurses staying, despite considerations about changing employee. They have experienced breach of contract, such as lack of feedback, responsiveness, and broken promises from the employer. They expected more resources such as education and salary. The study can contribute to understand nurturing nurses’ psychological contracts for a functioning employment.

A contagious virus appeared in late 2019 and later led to the COVID-19 pandemic being declared in March 2020. The pandemic has since seen detrimental socioeconomic effects worldwide which led to a halt in the global tourism industries. Sweden has used a different and criticized approach to combating the pandemic compared to other countries. The country has relied on the individual responsibility and the civic liability of its population.Meanwhile, the biggest island in the country, Gotland, has recovered itsvisitation figures during the pandemic and has been voted the most popular destination in Sweden in 2021. This recovery was, however, not without consequences. Residents of the island have voiced their opinions on the topic of the pandemic and tourism online and in newspapers. Residents have expressed fear of the virus spreading further, imposing health risks as restrictions on social distancing have not been kept by tourists. Tourismrelated research on Swedish island destinations to this end is scarce in addition to there being limited research on residents’ attitudes during a pandemic and limited qualitative research on residents’ attitudes in general.This is a qualitative case study that studies the islanders’ perceptions of tourism impacts with the help of semi-structured interviews and letters to the editors. The study uses Social Exchange Theory as the conceptual framework,a theory described as the most logical framework to explain residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts. The results from this study show that the residents perceive more negative impacts than positive impacts. Perceptions of positive impacts are mainly related to the contributions to rural areas. Negative impacts related to water scarcity, littering, the disappearance of natural areas, over-crowding, gentrification, seasonality, the economic interest of the tourism industry during the pandemic, and more.

Syftet med studien är att undersöka betydelsen faktorer kopplade till schemaläggning har för upplevelse av delaktighet och inflytande. De faktorer som undersökts är schemaläggningssystem, organisatoriska aspekter, samarbete, och flexibilitet. De teorier som används är Job demand-control model, Social exchange theory och Structural empowerment theory. Det är en kvalitativ intervjustudie med fem informanter som jobbar hel- eller deltid inom äldrevård eller funktionshinderomsorg i Umeå kommun. Informanterna har tre olika schemasystem med det gemensamma att samtliga informanter får ge önskemål på hur de vill att deras schema för kommande schemaperiod ska se ut. Resultatet visar att informanterna upplever olika grad av delaktighet och inflytande i sitt schemaläggningssystem. Centralt schemastöd är den funktion som minskar upplevelsen av delaktighet och inflytande för majoriteten av informanterna. Ökad utbildning, avsatt tid för schemaläggning, stöd för att öka samarbete på arbetsplatsen och kontakt med Centralt schemastöd är faktorer som sammanfattningsvis föreslås kan öka de anställdas delaktighet och inflytande i schemaläggning.

Outdoor adventure learning (OAL) provides a unique environment to teach organizational change. Therefore, there is an implication these programs can be used to foster necessary specific skills such as leading change, innovation, and thriving in hostile environments to lead in the ever-changing corporate world. Little research, however, supports the efficacy of adventure learning in achieving specific outcomes. Skeptics suggested the benefits of OAL programs do not always generalize effectively from the outdoor experience to the workplace. This paper outlines how utilizing strategic skills and theory to conduct OAL programs are effective and impactful in the corporate world. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions and meaning of a based outdoor adventure learning program among corporate executives using qualitative data analysis (QDA).

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In current supply chains, the context of subcontracting is majorly connected to unauthorised subcontracting with negative conjunction which has created the fear of discussing subcontracting. However, previous research presents subcontracting as a common practice within fashion and apparel supply chains, however, nearly no study has focused on elaborating the authorisation process. Therefore, this thesis explores the potential of authorising subcontracting to bring benefits for fashion and apparel brands, and aims to identify conditions from a brand’s perspective which need to apply for the authorisation process. Underpinned by the social exchange theory, circumstances within buyer-supplier relationships are discussed in which the ideal balance of power-dependence may lead to an open and effective communication environment for the treatment of subcontracting. Empirical data is collected through seven interviews with a qualitative research outlook. This revealed the significance of buyer-supplier relationships within which honesty, trust and transparency are building the basis for the discussion of subcontractors. Moreover, the findings further indicate that brands may have the benefit of having better capacity availability, more effective lead times, and the potential to have a broader production specialisation when embedding and authorising subcontractors. However, the conditions of keeping full control of the subcontracted production needs to be ensured by the brand directly or through the supervision of the tier 1 supplier to ensure high production quality standards. This study provides a starting point to understand the process of communicating and authorising subcontracting within brands and tier 1 suppliers which provides worthful insights for scholars and practitioners. From a theoretical perspective, this research aims to highlight the positive aspects of subcontracting for brands while leading the research stream towards the context of authorising subcontracting which has been lacking so far. In addition, from a practical perspective, this study aims to support brands and additional stakeholder groups in understanding and supporting the authorisation process. This may be the solution to tackle the issue of unauthorised and hidden subcontracting within the fashion and apparel industry.

In unpredictable crises, situations arise where the effects of the crisis do not manifest themselves during or after it is overplayed. The research literature has been limited to studying the context of a combination of an ongoing pandemic and how it affects the trust between coworkers in a virtual work environment, in which they have been compelled to work because of external pressures. As a result of a limitation of the existing research literature, the coworkers affected by the phenomenon need to be able to give their statements where experience and experiences are highlighted to deeply understand how this sudden situation has affected the coworkers' trust. The study aims to describe and understand how coworkers experience trust in compelled forms of work during a crisis. To find out how coworkers experience trust in teleworking, an empirical study in the form of a qualitative case study methodology has been applied. The empirical material consists of ten respondents from two service companies, which have been analyzed in thematic content analysis. The results show that compelled telework has led to certain changes in trust in coworkers and the organization in certain contexts in telework. Virtual trust in its definition proves to be difficult to achieve in these organizations if the coworkers have not worked together physically before. It appears that coworkers place greater emphasis on the factor of integrity than benevolence and ability. Organizations need to understand how different individuals fit a specific form of work, where the character of the personality plays a crucial role in the trust within the virtual teams. Furthermore, the results show that they require more understanding of the studied phenomenon to avoid psychological strains that affect the individual, the organization, and society partly on an individual level, partly for organizational goals, and from a societal perspective.