Two key themes of this special issue are: how violence challenges democracy and how democratic politics might, over time, diminish violence. This paper explores how violence(s) embedded in Latin America's state formation process are multiplied rather than diminished through democratization, generating a securitizing logic which fundamentally distorts democratic principles. Known for its high levels of historic violence(s), Latin America today is second only to Southern Africa in levels of homicide in the world. Some see contemporary violence in the region as a rupture from the past: ‘new violence’ characterized by its urban and social nature in contrast to the rural and political nature of the past. Violence, however, has a reproductive quality, by which it is transmitted through space as well as time. This article argues that rather than reflecting a rupture with the past, violence in Latin America has merely accelerated its complex reproduction in many forms across (gendered) spaces of socialization. The paradox is that the proliferation of this violence has occurred alongside democratic transitions. Although the state is not directly responsible for all the violence which is taking place, this article argues that in many countries it is the very trajectory of the state-formation process which has facilitated this rapid reproduction of violence. I call this process ‘perverse’. Democracy is increasingly subject to the fears and insecurities of the population, enabling the state to build its authority not on the protection of citizens' rights, but on its armed encounters and insidious collusions with violent actors in the name of ‘security provision’. Categories of people become non-citizens, subjected to abuse by state, para-state and non-state violent actors. If this process continues, democracy will ultimately be securitized.

This thesis explores the role of Development policy as an alternative to the traditional public security focused strategies for tackling organised crime violence in Latin America and the Caribbean. To do so, it builds bridges between the academic literature of criminology and development. It examines the public experiences of insecurity in Mexico and the social impacts of a development initiative, the Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) programme in two municipalities in Mexico. The thesis poses questions about the impacts of Development initiatives upon organised crime violence from the perspectives of those living within areas affected by violence. The CCT programmes seek to address poverty in the short and long-term and research has begun to explore the potential of these programmes to diminish violence and crime, almost exclusively from a quantitative research approach, whereas this study adopts a qualitative design. This research is based on data gathered through interviews, observations, and focus groups to examine the perspectives and experiences of current and former CCT recipients, CCT administrators, public security officials, members of the public, NGO leads, and ex-gang affiliated individuals. This micro-level qualitative methodology adopted in this research contrasts the almost exclusively macro-level, econometric evaluations which have dominated CCT and organised crime research. The findings demonstrated that respondents perceived CCTs as significant in reducing the propensity of young men participating in organised crime violence in their localities. The perspectives of participants in this study provided enough evidence to overturn a common narrative of ‘prevention doesn’t work’ and suggest that in each of the areas targeted by the study there is potential for a reduction of organised crime rooted in development initiatives according to respondents.

Mémoire de maîtrise présenté en vue de l’obtention de la maîtrise en psychoéducation, option recherche et stage (M. Sc.) / Objectif. L’omniprésence de la technologie dans le quotidien des jeunes leur offre un accès illimité au contenu médiatique violent, dès leur plus jeune âge. Les risques psychosociaux à l’adolescence associés à cette exposition précoce sont encore peu étudiés à l’heure actuelle. L’objectif de cette étude est d’examiner les associations prospectives entre l’exposition aux contenus télévisuels violents à l’âge préscolaire et les comportements extériorisés au milieu de l’adolescence. Méthode. Les participants (963 filles et 982 garçons) de cette étude longitudinale prospective proviennent de la cohorte de naissances de l’Étude longitudinale du développement des enfants du Québec (ELDEQ). Les parents ont rapporté la fréquence d’exposition de leur enfant à des contenus télévisuels violents à 3,5 ans et 4,5 ans. 4 indicateurs de comportements extériorisés ont été autorapportés par ces mêmes jeunes 11 ans plus tard. Afin d’établir ces associations prospectives, les indicateurs de comportements extériorisés à 15 ans ont été régressés linéairement sur l’exposition au contenu télévisuel violent à 3,5 et 4,5 ans, en fonction du sexe. La totalité des analyses a été contrôlée pour plusieurs caractéristiques individuelles et familiales confondantes. Résultats. Pour les filles, aucune association n’a été trouvée entre l’exposition préscolaire au contenu télévisuel violent et les comportements extériorisés à 15 ans. Pour les garçons, l’exposition préscolaire à des contenus télévisuels violents est associée à une augmentation de l’agressivité proactive (β = 0,065 ; IC 95 %, 0,001 à 0,089), de l’agressivité physique (β = 0,074 ; IC 95 %, 0,040 à 0,487) et des comportements antisociaux (β = 0,076 ; IC 95 %, 0,013 à 0,140) à l’âge de 15 ans. Conclusion. Les résultats révèlent des risques psychosociaux au niveau des comportements extériorisés au milieu de l’adolescence en lien avec l’exposition aux contenus télévisuels violents en bas âge pour les garçons uniquement. Un contrôle visant à limiter cette exposition durant la petite enfance représente une action à privilégier et des interventions de prévention devraient être effectuées en ce sens afin de favoriser un développement optimal de l’enfant. / Objective. The ubiquity of technology in the daily lives of youth provides unlimited access to violent media content from a very young age. Yet a better understanding of the long-term psycho-social risks associated with early exposure remains the object of debate. The objective of this study is to examine the prospective associations between exposure to violent television content in preschool years and externalizing behavior in mid-adolescence. Method. Participants for this are 963 girls and 982 boys from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD) birth cohort. Parents reported the frequency of their child's exposure to violent television content at ages 3.5 and 4.5 years. Four indicators of externalizing behavior were self-reported by participants 11 years later at age 15 years. These were linearly regressed on exposure to violent television content at ages 3.5 and 4.5 years, stratified by sex. All analyses were controlled for pre-existing and concurrent potential individual and family confounding variables. Results. For girls, no association was found between preschool violent televiewing and later externalizing behavior. For boys, preschool violent televiewing was associated with increases in proactive aggression (β = 0.065; 95% CI, 0.001 to 0.089), physical aggression (β = 0.074; 95% CI, 0.040 to 0.487), and antisocial behavior (β = 0.076; 95% CI, 0.013 to 0.140) in adolescence. Conclusion. This study of typically developing children demonstrates long-term prospective associations between characteristic domestic exposure to violent content in early childhood according to parental perceptions for sons and not daughters. Preventive interventions aimed at limiting this exposure during early childhood should be carried out accordingly to promote optimal child development.

No / Confronting the corrosive influence that war economies typically have on the prospects for peace in war-torn societies, this study critically analyzes current policy responses and offers a thought-provoking foundation for the development of more effective peacebuilding strategies. The authors focus on the role played by trade in precipitating and fueling conflict, with particular emphasis on the regional dynamics that are created by war economies. Their analysis highlights the darker side of the commitment to deregulation, open markets, and the expansion of trade routes that are key features of globalization. In each of three case studies¿-Sierra Leone, Afghanistan, and Bosnia¿they examine the nature of the war economy, the regional networks developed to support it, its legacies, and the impact of initiatives to transform it. That transformation, they argue, a process central to the transition from violent conflict to sustainable peace, can best be achieved through approaches that recognize critical regional factors.

De nombreuses études typologiques portant sur les caractéristiques psychopathologiques des conjoints violents montrent que ces derniers ne constituent pas un groupe homogène. La majorité des recherches empiriques visant à identifier les types de conjoints violents tendent à converger sur trois principaux groupes : le groupe violent et antisocial, le groupe état limite et le groupe non pathologique. Ces groupes se distinguent par leurs caractéristiques et les facteurs de risque associés à la violence conjugale. Malgré l’identification de facteurs de risque et de diverses caractéristiques psychopathologiques, notre compréhension du phénomène reste limitée en raison d’un manque de connaissances sur les trajectoires de violence des conjoints violents. Une large part des travaux existants se concentrent sur les expériences de violence durant l’enfance, négligeant l'évolution des comportements violents depuis le début de l'âge adulte. L'analyse des trajectoires de violence des conjoints violents dans un contexte intime pourrait révéler des schémas dynamiques, façonnés par une multitude de facteurs. Les objectifs de cette étude sont d'élaborer une typologie des conjoints violents basée sur leurs caractéristiques de personnalité et de vérifier si notre classification concorde ou diffère des typologies préexistantes. Nous avons cherché à comparer les profils des conjoints violents en utilisant divers outils psychométriques mesurant la psychopathie, l'impulsivité, les styles de pensées criminelles et le type de violence perpétrée au sein de la relation intime. Enfin, nous avons réalisé des path-analysis pour examiner si les conjoints violents suivent des trajectoires spécifiques de violence. L’étude porte sur 121 conjoints violents incarcérés au Québec, parmi lesquels 100 ont perpétré des violences physiques et psychologiques, et 21 des violences sexuelles. Les données ont été obtenues à partir d'entrevues semi-structurées, d'instruments psychométriques et de rapports officiels. Nos analyses ont permis d’identifier trois sous-types de conjoints violents : l’État limite, caractérisé par une importante instabilité émotionnelle et les taux de violence sexuelle les plus élevés ; le Sadique/antisocial, qui exerce un contrôle coercitif et utilise différents types de violence pour maintenir sa domination ; et le Non pathologique, qui ne présente pas de diagnostic psychopathologique, suggérant que d’autres facteurs doivent être pris en compte pour expliquer les violences en contexte intime. / Numerous typological studies on the psychopathological characteristics of violent partners show that they do not constitute a homogeneous group. Most empirical research aiming to identify types of violent partners tends to converge on three main groups: the violent and antisocial group, the borderline group, and the non-pathological group. These groups are distinguished by their characteristics and the risk factors associated with intimate partner violence. Despite the identification of risk factors and various psychopathological characteristics, our understanding of the phenomenon remains limited due to a lack of knowledge about the trajectories of violence among violent partners. A large portion of existing work focuses on childhood experiences of violence, neglecting the evolution of violent behaviors since early adulthood. Analyzing the trajectories of violence among violent partners in an intimate context could reveal dynamic patterns shaped by a multitude of factors. The objectives of this study are to develop a typology of violent partners based on their personality characteristics grouped under Axis II of the DSM-V and to verify whether our classification aligns with or differs from preexisting typologies. We sought to compare the profiles of violent partners using various psychometric tools measuring psychopathy, impulsivity, criminal thinking styles, and the type of violence perpetrated within the intimate relationship. Finally, we conducted path analyses to examine whether violent partners follow specific trajectories of violence. The study focuses on 121 incarcerated violent partners in Quebec, among whom 100 perpetrated physical and psychological violence, and 21 committed sexual violence. Data were obtained from semistructured interviews, psychometric instruments, and official reports. Our analyses identified three subtypes of violent partners: the Borderline, characterized by significant emotional instability and the highest rates of sexual violence; the Sadistic/Antisocial, who exercises coercive control and uses various types of violence to maintain dominance; and the Non- Pathological, who does not present a psychopathological diagnosis, suggesting that other factors must be considered to explain violence in an intimate context.

Violent cnme is among the most prominent distinguishing characteristics of South African society, it has a severely traumatising effect on the populations concerned. Based on research :findings and existing literature, this study explores traumatic effects of violent crime on the most intimate associate of the victim (the partner). Accordingly, this study deals with the much-neglected topic of secondary trauma, by focusing on the following aspects of or conditions associated with violent crime and the secondary victim: cognitive, emotional and relational effects the experience of trauma, loss, vulnerability, depression and acute stress. It reveals that, depending on the severity of the incident, its consequences for the partner of the victim may range from post-traumatic stress to acute stress or secondary traumatic stress. From the similar results returned for primary and secondary victims, it is apparent that in the future, both victim and supporter should have their needs addressed with equal emphasis. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Specialisation in Guidance and Councelling)

This research focused on the personal experiences of both male and female victims of violent crimes. The aim of this research was to explore how indigenous Black South Africans understand and deal with victimisation. An African epistemology was used to help gain a deeper understanding of the experiences of the participants. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling strategy. Five participants were selected for this study. Data was collected using individual face-to-face semi-structured interviews. Based on the transcribed data, themes were extracted and analysed using content analysis. The results indicate that participants attributed varying meanings to their victimisation. / Psychology / M. A. (Clinical Psychology)

Murder, rape, corruption and gang wars, sounds like something out of a bad movie but for many it is their way of life and not a movie they can stop. Many people today live with the constant threat of attack and the threat is often not by some stranger but someone they know, their neighbour, their uncle, their father, their domestic worker and on occasion even their own mother. As crime escalates more people are asking the question,"Why this rapid increase in crime and why is there such an increase in the number of violent crimes?" South Africa is well known, unfortunately, for its high crime rate and in particular it's exceptionally high violent crime rate. South Africa is rated in the top 10 for the highest murders per capita (UNDOC 2011). Over the past 20 years the number of violent crimes has progressively increased and the reason for this increase needs to be examined. there appears to be a rapid increase in the number of people presenting personality disorders in society. A number of studies have been conducted on the etiology of anti-social personality disorder and on psychopathology. In the past the majority of these studies had been conducted in developed countries and in the past few years a number of studies have started to be conducted in developing countries. Although very interesting with great insight very few have tried to examined any trends and differences between developed and developing countries. During the course of these studies it has been observed that inmates and people exhibiting Psychopathy traits are more likely to commit violent crimes and in addition reoffend. The thesis proposed examines trends between developed and developing countries to find any links between crime and psychopathology and in addition the etiology, prevalence and prevention of psychopathology. The study will identify a number of models utilised to understand violence in society and personality disorders with particular reference to psychopathy. The study is being done in order to obtain a better understanding of a link between psychopathology and escalating crime in South Africa and what, if anything can be done to decrease this prevelance. This thesis outlines a number of diagnostic tools utilised in order to determine if a person is indeed suffering from psychopathy. Each one of these is discussed and the validity of each considered for both developed and developing countries as a diagnostic tool. The study clearly show that there are a number of unanswered questions around psychopathy within South Africa and that more research within a South African context needs to be conducted if this disorder is to be properly understood. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Violence is considered a global mental health problem. The rate of violence in South Africa is amongst the highest in the world and much of this violence is disproportionately skewed towards the poorer and historically disadvantaged communities. Low-income communities continue to bear the brunt of historical legacies of violence which are perpetuated through current ongoing cycles of interpersonal and community violence. While much has been documented about trauma and resilience in environments where the violence or traumatic event has ceased, there is a dearth of literature conceptualising trauma and resilience in contexts where the violence persists. Furthermore, even fewer studies have captured how trauma and resilience are conceptualised from the perspectives of the voices who experience this violence daily. The social constructionist framework of this study aims to contribute to the knowledge of how trauma and resilience is constructed by those who experience ongoing violence, and whether resilience and healing does occur in an environment of continuous traumatic stress. The voices of the participants of the study provide an additional perspective from that of community-based counsellors. Their dual experience of living and working in a violent community gives a rich insight into the relationship between trauma and resilience. The study is located in Hanover Park, a low-income community, notorious for its high levels of community violence. The participants are community-based counsellors who volunteer at Organisation X, a community-based ecological intervention that has been developed in response to addressing the cyclical impacts of ongoing violence and continuous trauma. The research design is a purposive in-depth case study of eighteen counsellors, investigating the narratives of their lives within its real-life context. Follow-up focus groups held with the counsellors were guided by ideas and practices of narrative theory. The narratives were analysed using thematic content and experience-centred form analysis. Multi-level themes related to trauma and resilience were constructed by the participants. It was revealed that the trauma effects related to systemic ongoing violence are viewed as maladaptive features of negative resilience. At the same time positive resilience which promotes healing, empowerment and transformation is possible despite negative and violent environments. The perspectives of community counsellors which offer critically important insight into their experience of the context of violence, and the complex interconnecting of individual, interpersonal and social aspects of trauma and healing in disadvantaged communities, could also inform future evidence-based interventions, provide alternate paradigms within which mental health professionals could position themselves to engage in issues of social justice and psychosocial health. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geweld word wêreldwyd as 'n geestesgesondheidsprobleem beskou. Die voorkoms van geweld in Suid-Afrika, is tans een van die hoogstes in die wêreld en die meeste van hierdie geweld neig om veral die armer en histories benadeelde gemeenskappe negatief te raak. Gemeenskappe in die laer inkomstegroepe is dus die mense wat die spit afbyt, omdat hierdie historiese nalatenskap van geweld deur die huidige voortdurende kringloop van interpersoonlike en gemeenskapsgeweld voortleef. Alhoewel daar alreeds baie dokumentêre bewyse bestaan oor trauma en veerkragtigheid in omgewings waar geweld of traumatiese gebeure beëindig is, is daar 'n gebrek aan literatuur wat trauma en veerkragtigheid vasvang waar geweld die orde van die dag is. Daar is verder nog minder studies wat vaslê hoe trauma en veerkragtigheid uit die oogpunt van die betrokkenes wat geweld daagliks ervaar, gekonseptualiseer word. Die sosiale konstruksionisme raamwerk van hierdie studie beoog om 'n bydrae te lewer oor hoe , indien wel, trauma en genesing beleef word deur diegene wat voortdurende geweld ervaar in 'n omgewing waar aanhoudende traumatiese stres voorkom. Die deelnemers aan hierdie studie verskaf 'n addisionele perspektief van die van gemeenskapsberaders. Hul tweeledige ervaring van leef en werk in 'n gewelddadige gemeenskap verskaf 'n dieper insig in die verhouding tussen trauma en veerkragtigheid. Die buurt waar die studie gedoen is, is Hanover-park - 'n lae inkomste gemeenskap wat berug is vir hoe vlakke van gemeenskapsgeweld. Die deelnemers is beraders uit die gemeenskap wat vrywillige werk doen by Organisasie X - 'n gemeenskapsgebaseerde ekologiese intervensie wat ontwikkel is om die sikliese impak van voortdurende geweld en trauma te verminder. Die navorsingstudie is 'n doelgerigte diepgaande gevallestudie van agtien beraders wat hul lewensverhale binne die werklike konteks ondersoek. Die beraders het die opvolg fokus-groepe gelei deur idees en die narratiewe teorie in die praktyk toe te pas. Die vertellings is geanaliseer deur gebruik te maak van die tematiese inhoud en 'n ervarings-gesentreerde analitiese formaat. Veelvlakkige temas wat verband hou met trauma en veerkragtigheid is deur die deelnemers saamgestel. Dit het aan die lig gebring dat die effek van trauma wat verband hou met voortdurende sistemiese geweld geag word as wanaangepaste kenmerke van negatiewe veerkragtigheid. Terselfdertyd is die positiewe veerkragtigheid wat genesing, bemagtiging en verandering evorder moontlik, ten spyte van negatiewe en gewelddadige omgewings. Die vooruitsigte van die gemeenskapsberaders wat belangrike en kritiese insig in hul ervarings binne geweldsverband bied, die ingewikkelde verbondenheid van die indiwiduele, interpersoonlike en sosiale aspekte van trauma en genesing in benadeelde gemeenskappe kan insiggewend wees vir toekomstige ingryping. Dit kan alternatiewe modelle voorsien waarvolgens beroepslui in die geestesgesondheidveld hulself kan inrig om kwessies van sosiale geregtigheid en psigo-sosiale gesondheids-toestande aan te spreek.

Murder, rape, corruption and gang wars, sounds like something out of a bad movie but for many it is their way of life and not a movie they can stop. Many people today live with the constant threat of attack and the threat is often not by some stranger but someone they know, their neighbour, their uncle, their father, their domestic worker and on occasion even their own mother. As crime escalates more people are asking the question,"Why this rapid increase in crime and why is there such an increase in the number of violent crimes?" South Africa is well known, unfortunately, for its high crime rate and in particular it's exceptionally high violent crime rate. South Africa is rated in the top 10 for the highest murders per capita (UNDOC 2011). Over the past 20 years the number of violent crimes has progressively increased and the reason for this increase needs to be examined. there appears to be a rapid increase in the number of people presenting personality disorders in society. A number of studies have been conducted on the etiology of anti-social personality disorder and on psychopathology. In the past the majority of these studies had been conducted in developed countries and in the past few years a number of studies have started to be conducted in developing countries. Although very interesting with great insight very few have tried to examined any trends and differences between developed and developing countries. During the course of these studies it has been observed that inmates and people exhibiting Psychopathy traits are more likely to commit violent crimes and in addition reoffend. The thesis proposed examines trends between developed and developing countries to find any links between crime and psychopathology and in addition the etiology, prevalence and prevention of psychopathology. The study will identify a number of models utilised to understand violence in society and personality disorders with particular reference to psychopathy. The study is being done in order to obtain a better understanding of a link between psychopathology and escalating crime in South Africa and what, if anything can be done to decrease this prevelance. This thesis outlines a number of diagnostic tools utilised in order to determine if a person is indeed suffering from psychopathy. Each one of these is discussed and the validity of each considered for both developed and developing countries as a diagnostic tool. The study clearly show that there are a number of unanswered questions around psychopathy within South Africa and that more research within a South African context needs to be conducted if this disorder is to be properly understood. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)