Los estereotipos de género prevalecen en el lugar de trabajo. Esto infringe la igualdad de género y generalmente afecta el desempeño laboral subjetivo. Esta investigación estudia la percepción de un grupo de empleados bancarios sobre las construcciones sociales que existen en la sociedad sobre género y analiza la relación de estas percepciones en el desempeño laboral subjetivo. Para ello, se aplicaron 382 encuestas a personas pertenecientes a la fuerza laboral de los bancos peruanos en el año 2021. Se analizaron tres áreas para la variable género: brecha salarial, participación del género en un puesto laboral y demanda familiar. Los resultados mostraron de los cuestionarios aplicados mostraron que el género y el desempeño laboral no tienen una relación. Sin embargo, la percepción de las tres áreas estudiadas de la variable género si tienen relación con el desempeño laboral subjetivo. / Gender stereotypes are prevalent in the workplace. This violates gender equality and usually affects the subjective job performance. This research studies the perception of a group of bank employees about the social constructions that exist in the society on gender and analyze the relationship of these perceptions on the subjective job performance. To do this, 382 surveys were applied to people belonging to the labor force in Peruvian banks. Three areas were analyzed for the gender variable: wage gap, participation of gender in a job position and family demand. On the other hand, for the job performance variable, a survey of twenty-three questions has been taken based on the questionnaire by Volkan, A., Rabia, C. and Edina, A. The results showed that gender and job performance are not related. However, the perception of the three studied areas of the gender variable is related to subjective job performance. / Tesis

Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo analizar los factores determinantes de la brecha salarial entre hombres y mujeres en el mercado laboral peruano: 2014 – 2018. Para lograr dicho objetivo, se usó la base de datos del INEI correspondiente a la ENAHO sobre condiciones de vida y pobreza y se utilizó la encuesta panel para los años correspondientes de la investigación, dentro de esta base datos se escogió a las personas que respondieron durante estos cinco años. La base de datos fue divida en dos grupos, una correspondiente a los hombres y la otra a las mujeres para luego ser estimadas por separado mediante el método de Oaxaca – Choe (2016) para panel de datos, los resultados muestran que las mujeres ganan 25.76% menos que los hombres. Por lo tanto, se encontró que los factores determinantes de la brecha salarial entre grupos son el nivel educativo, las horas trabajadas, la experiencia, el tamaño de la empresa, la edad, la edad elevada al cuadrado. Sin embargo, en el modelo se incluyeron otros variables como es el caso del estado civil, el estar embarazada o no (en el caso de las mujeres), las limitaciones para moverse (discapacidad física), el tiempo de residencia en el distrito o si es perteneciente a un pueblo indígena o no, las cuales no fueron significativas.

Das Thema dieser Arbeit ist die Heterogenität der Arbeitsmarktresultate über den Lebenszyklus und über die Geschlechter hinweg. Die Dissertation besteht aus drei unabhängigen Forschungsarbeiten (Kapitel 2-4), die sich auf komplementäre Aspekte der übergeordneten Forschungsfrage konzentrieren: Wie bestimmen Erwerbsentscheidungen das Einkommen und welche Rolle spielt die Geschlechtskomponente? Kapitel 1 führt in das Thema Lohn- und Geschlechtergefälle ein und wie diese mit Erwerbsentscheidungen zusammenhängen. Kapitel 2 analysiert Daten des Deutschen Sozio-oekonomischen Panels und der Innovationsstichprobe des Panels und untersucht die Rolle von verzerrten Erwartungen. Es setzt falsche Vorstellungen über die Arbeitsmarktvergütung von Teilzeitarbeitsjahren mit der Neigung von Frauen zur Teilnahme an Teilzeitbeschäftigung und den daraus resultierenden Einkommensverlusten aus der Beschäftigung in Beziehung. Kapitel 3 fügt die Dimension der Karriereentwicklung hinzu. Es zeigt auf, dass Arbeitserfahrung in Teilzeitbeschäftigung im Vergleich zu Vollzeitbeschäftigung mit geringeren Aufstiegsschancen einhergeht, und dass Beförderungen wichtige Quellen für Lohnsteigerungen sind. Zusammengenommen zeigt die Analyse, dass geringere Löhne durch Teilzeiterfahrung zwei Hauptkomponenten haben – einen erschwerten Karriereaufstieg in höher bezahlte Karrierestufen und ein stagnierendes Lohnwachstum unabhängig von der Karrierestufe. Das letzte Kapitel ergänzt die Diskussion über Lösungen für eine seit langem bestehende Herausforderung in der empirischen Arbeitsökonomie - die Selektionsverzerrung bei Löhnen. Es steuert einen neuartigen nicht-parametrischen Schätzer der von Selektionseffekten bereinigten kumulativen Verteilungslohnfunktion bei. In diesem Kapitel wird anhand von administrativen Daten aus Deutschland gezeigt, wie der Schätzer zur Schätzung einer selektionskorrigierten Verteilung der geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnunterschiede eingesetzt werden kann. / The topic of this thesis is the heterogeneity in labor market outcomes over the life cycle and across gender. The thesis comprises three independent research papers (Chapters 2-4), which focus on complementary aspects of the overreaching research question: how do employment choices determine earnings, and what role does the gender component play? Chapter 1 introduces the topic of wage and gender gaps and how these stand related to employment choices. Chapter 2 analyzes data from the German Socio-Economic Panel and the Panel's Innovation Sample and investigates the role of biases in beliefs. It relates misperceptions about the labor market remuneration of years spent working part-time to the women's propensity to engage in part-time employment and the consequent earnings losses. Chapter 3 adds the dimension of career development. It posits that part-time penalties in experience accumulation decrease the chances of being promoted and that promotions are important sources of wage growth. In sum, the analysis shows that part-time wage penalties have two key components - hampered career progression to higher-paying career levels and stagnating wage growth regardless of career level. The final chapter adds to the discussion on solutions to a longstanding challenge in empirical labor economics posed by the selection bias in wages observed by econometricians. It contributes a novel non-parametric estimator of the selection-free cumulative distribution wage function. This chapter leverages administrative data records from Germany to show how the estimator can be applied in estimating a selection-corrected distribution of gender wage gaps.

Dans cette thèse, nous étudions l'effet de l'auto-sélection des salariés sur l'estimation de la productivité, des différentiels de salaires et de qualité du travail entre les secteurs. Afin de prendre en compte l'auto-sélection des employés dans l'estimation des différentiels le long de la distribution des salaires, nous construisons une approche innovante composée de trois caractéristiques: (i) nous nous intéressons aux effets par quantile inconditionnel; (ii) nous incorporons des effets fixes spécifiques à chaque quantile; (iii) nous proposons une méthode de correction de l'incidental parameter bias. Cette approche permet de produire des résultats exploitables en terme de politiques publiques. Nous montrons dans un premier temps que la sélection positive dans le secteur public tend à se dégrader. Elle disparaît totalement en haut de la distribution des salaires dans la période récente, suggérant un effet négatif du gel des salaires nominaux. Dans notre deuxième article, nous mettons en évidence une sélection négative substantielle dans le secteur informel concernant les hommes et les bas salaires. Cette sélection négative apparaît à la suite de la Grande Récession, indiquant une réallocation des salariés les moins productifs vers le secteur informel. Dans le dernier article, nous montrons pour la période récente que le niveau de productivité des SCOP n'est pas significativement différent de celui des autres entreprises. Nous confirmons l'hypothèse selon laquelle les motivations non-pécunières des employés expliquent une partie importante de la productivité des SCOP dans deux des secteurs étudiés (secteur manufacturier et secteur des transports). / This PhD thesis studies the effect of workers' self-selection when estimating productivity, wages and job quality differentials between sectors. In order to account for the self-selection of employees in the estimation of differentials along the wage distribution, we develop an innovative approach comprising three features: (i) we rely on unconditional quantile effects ; (ii) we incorporate quantile-specific fixed effects; (iii) we suggest a treatment of the incidental parameter bias. This method allows to provide public policies relevant comparisons. We show first that the positive selection into public jobs tends to decline. It totally disappears among top earners in the recent period, suggesting the detrimental effect of nominal wage freeze. In the second paper, we unveil that there is a substantial negative selection into informal salary work for men on average and particularly at low wages. It arises in the wake of the Great Recession, pointing to a shakeout of less productive workers in the formal sector. In the last paper, we account for employees' non-pecuniary motives in our comparison of the productivity of labour-managed firms and other for-profits company. We confirm for the recent period and on a large scale that the SCOP total factor productivity level is not significantly different from the other firms'. We find also results that support the hypothesis that employees non-pecuniary motives accounts for a substantial part of French labour-managed firms productivity in two of the three industries studied (manufacturing and transports).

The U.S. is the only OECD country that does not offer any form of federal paid parental leave. Only three states—California, New Jersey and Rhode Island—have state paid parental leave policies; implemented in 2004, 2009 and 2014, respectively. Through descriptive statistics and a regression analysis of women and men’s wages in those three states, before and after the implementation of the policies, we assess the effects of paid leave programs on the gender wage gaps in those states. Our results show us that California’s paid family leave policy had greater effects on decreasing the gender wage gap than the policies in New Jersey and Rhode Island. In addition, our regression analysis shows us that women of childbearing age (19-45 years) saw an increase in their wages after the policy implementations, while men of childbearing age saw a decrease in their wages. This led us to the conclusion that paid family leave policies may be effective in decreasing the gender wage gap; however it is problematic that men’s wages decreased, implying that the policies may not be totally welfare optimizing. However, we came to an important conclusion that will hopefully entice more states and the federal government to implement policies to better support working parents.

The U.S. is the only OECD country that does not offer any form of federal paid parental leave. Only three states—California, New Jersey and Rhode Island—have state-provided paid leave policies; implemented in 2004, 2009 and 2014, respectively. Through descriptive statistics and difference-in-difference-in-difference regression analyses of the wages of women and men of childbearing age (19-45 years) in those three states, we assess whether the paid leave programs have effected wages, and whether these effects vary depending on gender. Our results show that wages of women of childbearing age saw negligible net effects post-policy in policy states, although statistically insignificant. On the other hand, the wages of men of childbearing age saw improvements post-policy implementation in policy states, compared to wages in non-policy states. Although the policies do not necessarily widen the gender wage gap, they do not work to help close it, due to flaws in the policies. To be more effective in reducing gender wage gaps, these policies need to increase the amount of paid support, and implement job protection rights in order to decrease the opportunity costs of men taking leave. If more men are able to take paid leave, then potentially parts of the gender wage gap that are due to employers viewing women as less attached to the workforce can decrease. Through this research we came to important conclusions that highlight the ways in which support of working parents in the US is lacking, and offered recommendations to create more equitable and effective policies.

In order to assess the continuing imbalance of top executives between genders, I examine the effects of gender diversity within top management teams on firm risk, performance, and executive compensation. Capitalizing on previous analysis, I apply three unique differentiators. First, I utilize current data from 2012 to 2017 from Compustat, CRSP, and ExecuComp. Second, I provide a unique subset view on a firm and individual performance of female CEOs to examine executive compensation. Third, my scope of analysis expands to S&P Composite 1500 companies. I use separate models to estimate the effect of gender diversity on firm risk by examining a firm’s beta and standard deviation of daily returns, on firm performance by examining a firm’s Tobin’sQ, and lastly on executive compensation by examining an executive’s natural logarithm of total compensation. My findings suggest gender diversity among executives appears to have an immaterial effect on a firm’s risk and performance. In turn, I also find that female executives continue to receive less compensation than their male colleagues. However, I find an average female CEO receives a higher level of compensation than an average male CEO. Lastly, I find as gender diversity increases among executives, specifically CEOs, the compensation differences between genders decreases.

El presente estudio analiza el efecto del nivel educativo en la elección ocupacional de los individuos de Lima Metropolitana. El modelo econométrico utilizado permite evaluar la probabilidad de un individuo para obtener un tipo de ocupación. A partir de ello, el trabajo concluye que el nivel educativo es relevante para ciertos tipos de ocupaciones, los cuales poseen un mayor ingreso promedio. Además, este factor, al ser considerado como el principal determinante de la elección ocupacional, permite compensar -en dichas ocupaciones- las diferencias por género y origen étnico. Por último, el modelo permite estimar un perfil promedio de cada tipo de ocupación, con el cual los individuos pueden realizar una comparación y obtener una guía para cumplir su objetivo ocupacional o salarial. / This study analyzes the effect of educational level on the occupational choice of individuals from Lima Metropolitana. The econometric model used allows evaluating the probability of an individual to obtain a type of occupation. From this, the work concludes that the educational level is relevant for certain types of occupations, which have a higher average income. Furthermore, this factor, since it is considered the main determinant of occupational choice, makes it possible to compensate - in these occupations - for differences by gender and ethnicity. Finally, the model allows estimating an average profile of each type of occupation, with which individuals can make a comparison and obtain a guide to meet their occupational or salary objective. / Trabajo de investigación

Cette thèse explore la dimension géographique des disparités entre les sexes dans le marché du travail. Les questions étudiées incluent la variation de la prime salariale urbaine entre les sexes (chapitre deux), l'exploration des différents mécanismes derrière les effets importants de la localisation géographique sur les gains du marché du travail des femmes (chapitre trois), et de l'écart entre les sexes sur les rendements d'expérience urbains (chapitre quatre). Le deuxième chapitre entreprend une analyse transversale à l'aide de données françaises pour estimer la prime salariale urbaine et sa variation entre les sexes. Les résultats confirment l'existence d'une prime salariale urbaine nettement supérieure pour les femmes. Un doublement de la densité de l'emploi dans une zone donnée entraîne une réduction de 2,4 pourcent de l'écart salarial entre les sexes, une valeur qui augmente de 4 pourcent lorsqu'on exclut la catégorie professionnelle des ouvriers. Contrairement au reste des professions, l'effet de la densité favorise les hommes dans la catégorie des ouvriers. Le troisième chapitre cherche à trouver les mécanismes à l'origine de l'effet importante de la localisation géographique sur les gains du marché du travail pour les femmes en employant l'approche par l'estimateur « within ». Les résultats suggèrent que la moitié de la prime salariale urbaine est attribuée sur la base d'un tri des travailleurs selon le type de compétences à travers des différentes zones. Cependant, en complément du tri de compétences, d'autres hétérogénéités individuelles contribuent également à l'excès de la prime salariale urbaine pour les femmes. / This dissertation explores the geographical dimension of the gender gaps in the labor market. The investigated issues include the variation of urban wage premium across genders (chapter two), exploration of different mechanisms behind stronger location effects for females' labor market gains (chapter three), and the gender gap in the urban returns to experience (chapter four). The second chapter undertakes a cross-sectional analysis by using French data to estimate the urban wage premium and its variation across genders. The findings confirm the existence of an urban wage premium that is significantly higher for women. A twofold increase in employment density of an area results in a 2.4 percent reduction in the gender wage gap, which increases to 4 percent when we exclude manual workers occupational category. Contrary to the rest of the occupations, the density effect favors men in the manual workers category. The third chapter seeks to find the mechanisms behind the stronger location effects on labor market gains for women by employing the within estimate approach. Results suggest that half of the urban wage premium is contributed by the sorting of workers according to skill type across different areas. However, in addition to skill sorting other individual heterogeneities also contribute to the excess urban wage premium for females. Firm level agglomeration effects attribute a minor part to the excess urban wage premium for females. The left over premium is a result of pure urban effects (lower discrimination, better matching, urban amenities).

Diese Dissertation besteht aus drei Aufsätzen, welche die sozio-ökonomische Konsequenzen der Verwicklung in Konflikte untersuchen. Der erste Artikel untersucht den Einfluss der “Operation Iraqi Freedom” und des folgenden Bürgerkrieges auf die Beschulung von irakischen Kindern im schulpflichtigen Alter. Einen Schwerpunkt der Studie bildet die Überwindung eines Endogenitätsproblems, welches sich durch nicht-zufällige Verwicklung in Gewalt ergibt. Die Ergebnisse der Studie zeigen, dass in Abhängigkeit von der Intensität des Konfliktes die Schuleinschreibung von Mädchen durch eine Verwicklung in Konflikte zwischen sechs bis zwölf Prozent reduziert wird. Der bei Jungen gemessene Effekt beläuft sich auf eine Reduzierung um ein bis neun Prozent. Im zweiten Artikel werden Lohnzuschläge von hochqualifizierten palästinensischen Arbeitskräften in Zusammenhang mit alternierender Intensität im Nahostkonflikt gestellt. Mit dem Ausbruch der Zweiten Intifada im Jahr 2000 führen erhöhte Grenzkontrollen zu eingeschränkte Mobilität. Dadurch gewinnt Der Dienstleistungssektor in den Besetzten Gebieten an relativer Bedeutung. Dieser beschäftigt anteilig mehr hochqualifizierte Arbeitskräfte als andere Sektoren, was den Anstieg ihrer relativen Löhne erklärt. Im dritten Artikel wird die Entwicklung des Geschlechterlohndifferentials in den Palästinensischen Gebieten untersucht. Während der Lohnunterschied zwischen Mann und Frau bis 1999 ansteigt, lässt sich mit dem Ausbruch der Zweiten Intifada die Umkehrung dieses Trends verzeichnen. Die Verlagerung der palästinensischen Beschäftigung aus Israel in den lokalen Arbeitsmarkt erklärt dabei 57,8 Prozent der schrumpfenden Lohnlücke. Die dadurch veränderte Industriestruktur macht weitere 26,5 Prozent der Lohnkonvergenz aus. Die veränderte Beschäftigung zugunsten der Agrar- und Dienstleistungssektoren, welche sich beide durch einen hohen Anteil an Arbeiterinnen auszeichnen, führt zu einem Anstieg ihrer relativen Löhne. / This thesis consists of three essays that analyze the socio-economic consequences of conflict involvement. The first essay studies the effect of the Operation Iraqi Freedom and the following civil war on schooling outcomes of Iraqi children in mandatory schooling age. Several conflict measures which vary over geographic regions are proposed to capture different traits of conflict involvement. A special focus is laid on overcoming the potential endogeneity arising from non-random involvement into conflicts. I find decreased school enrollment of six-year-old boys and girls. Depending on the intensity of the conflict enrollment of girls is reduced by six to twelve percent. The detrimental effect measured for boys ranges between one and nine percent. The second essay examines wage differentials of high-skilled workers in relation to relaxing and tightening conflict intensity in the Israeli-Palestinian case. After the outbreak of the Second Intifada in 2000 the relative wage of skilled workers experiences a substantial increase. Regional employment shifts coming along with a change in the sector composition are responsible for a higher skill-intensive labor employment which translates into higher relative wages for skilled workers. The third essay explores the evolution of the gender wage gap in the Palestinian Territories. While the male-female wage differential increases till 1999, this trend is reversed with the outbreak of the Second Intifada. The catch-up of the female wages is mainly driven by relative employment shifts across workplaces and sectors. The shift of employment in Israel to the local labor market explains 57.8 percent of the closing wage gap between men and women. The related change in the industry structure explains another 26.5 percent of the wage convergence. I find relative gains of the service and agricultural sectors located in the Palestinian Territories, both of which rely on high shares of female labor input.