Este estudo objetiva apresentar e discutir os principais conceitos da Teoria do Polissistema, de Itamar Even-Zohar, a aplicação de seus conceitos à realidade brasileira e as suas contribuições aos estudos literários e à Literatura Comparada. São apresentados os conceitos de sistema e de polissistema, uma hipótese para a estruturação do sistema literário, pela qual são apresentados os conceitos de instituição, mercado, produtor, consumidor, repertório e produto, e hipóteses para a definição de leis de interferência literária. Para a aplicação dos conceitos da Teoria do Polissistema à realidade brasileira, este trabalho realiza um breve estudo de caso sobre o papel da Internet no sistema literário brasileiro contemporâneo. Em primeiro lugar, é discutido o conceito de hipertexto sob a ótica dos trabalhos de Pierre Lévy, Alckmar Luiz dos Santos e Ingedore Koch. Em segundo lugar, é discutido o conceito de blog e sua relação com o de hipertexto. Em terceiro lugar, o texto publicado em blog A Saga do Primeiro Beijo, de Alessandra Félix, é utilizado para a aplicação dos conceitos da Teoria do Polissistema e comparado, do ponto de vista formal, ao folhetim. Dessa forma, visualiza-se o conjunto de contribuições dos trabalhos de Even-Zohar e procura-se comprovar suas principais hipóteses. / Based on Even-Zohar's Polysystem Theory, this work not only presents and discusses its main concepts, but also applies it to the Brazilian scenario, in addition to its contributions to literary studies and comparative literature. After presenting definitions for systems and polysystems, it exposes the hypothesis for the literary system structure. The hypothesis contains definitions of institution, market, manufacturer, consumer, repertoire and product. Also, this work discusses the hypothesis that determines the laws of literary interference. In order to apply the Polysystem Studies to the Brazilian scenario, a short case study over the Internet role in the Brazilian contemporary literary system was produced. The case study starts with an analysis over the hypertext concept under the light of Pierre Lévy, Alckmar Luiz dos Santos and Ingedore Koch. Then the definition for blog is discussed in relation to the hypertext notion. Finally, the Polysystem Theory is applied to the writing A saga do Primeiro Beijo, published in a blog by Alessandra Félix, also comparing it to feuilleton under the formal aspect. By this means, it is possible to see the set of contributions made by Even-Zohar's study as a whole, as well as the application of its main assumptions.

[pt] O closed caption é um tipo de legenda que foi concebida para permitir aos surdos e pessoas com dificuldades auditivas o acesso a programas, comerciais e filmes veiculados na televisão, em vídeo e DVD. Criado nos Estados Unidos, ele também atende a outros segmentos da sociedade, como idosos ensurdecidos, estrangeiros aprendendo o idioma, semi-analfabetos e crianças em fase de alfabetização e possibilita o entendimento do áudio em locais onde o som da TV for inaudível. No Brasil, o primeiro programa transmitido com closed caption – também denominado legenda fechada – foi o Jornal Nacional, da Rede Globo, em 1997. Desde então, o número de programas que disponibilizam a tecnologia vem crescendo e só tende a aumentar à medida que a Lei 10.098 de 2006, conhecida como Lei da Acessibilidade, for implantada. Essa lei, que estabelece a obrigatoriedade do uso da legenda fechada em programas de televisão, determina que, até 2019, toda a programação brasileira seja transmitida com esse recurso. Em sintonia com o movimento de expansão do closed caption no Brasil, a proposta deste trabalho é traçar um panorama do uso da tecnologia no país, analisando suas principais características e as diferenças em relação a outros modelos, com base na teoria dos polissistemas de Itamar Even-Zohar (1997 [1990]) e nos Estudos Descritivos da Tradução, com especial destaque para os conceitos de norma, de Gideon Toury (1995), e patronagem, de André Lefevere (1992). Além disso, levando em conta essas características, será discutida a noção de tradução, bem como a possibilidade de atribuir tal estatuto à legenda fechada. / [en] Closed captions are a type of subtitling created to allow people with hearing impairments to understand shows, commercials and movies on television, video or DVD. Created in the US, it has also helped other segments of the population, such as the elderly, foreigners learning a new language, semi-illiterate people and children that are learning to read. It is also a solution for places in which the TV sound is inaudible. In Brazil, the first TV show broadcast with closed captions was Jornal Nacional, on Rede Globo, in 1997. Since then, the number of programs broadcast with this resource has been increasing and it is expected to grow even further after the law known as the Accessibility Bid, voted in 2006, is made effective. This law establishes that the use of closed captions in Brazilian TV shows is obligatory and that, by 2019, all shows aired on Brazilian television must be broadcast with closed captions. Considering the expansion of the technology in Brazil, this dissertation aims to present an overall view of the way closed captions are being used in Brazil, the difference from other types of captions and the main resources used, based on Even- Zohar s Polysystem Theory (1997 [1990]) and the concepts of norm (Toury, 1995), and patronage (Lefevere, 1992) from Descriptive Translation Studies. Furthermore, taking into consideration the characteristics of closed caption, we intend to discuss the status of translation that is being given to the technology.

Lea Goldberg [1911-1970] is one of modern Hebrew literature’s most significant poet/translators. This thesis approaches her early poetry and prose from the perspective of three theories of translation. ‘Polysystems’, ‘norms’, and ‘pseudotranslation’ grew from the scholarly and translation-lineage in Hebrew literary studies that Goldberg herself contributed to. Utilizing these three methods of reading, this thesis argues that translation’s thematization in Goldberg’s creative work is evidence for the poet’s ideal for a cosmopolitan, multilingual, national literature in the new Jewish State. This receptive stance to previous and concurrent literary traditions was met with much skepticism and criticism from Goldberg’s colleagues, and as a result, Goldberg’s oeuvre occupies a more peripheral position than several of her contemporaries.

Thesis (DLitt (Afrikaans and Dutch))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation explores Antjie Krog as translator within the Afrikaans and English literary field in South Africa. The focus of the study is primarily on Krog’s translation of her own work, namely her prose works Country of my skull and A change of tongue/’n Ander tongval, and poetry Down to my last skin, die sterre sê ‘tsau’/the stars say ‘tsau’ and Verweerskrif/Body bereft. Although Krog is also renowned for her work as translator of others’ work, the concept self translation is particularly relevant for this study: to write through translation and translate through writing. The study has a dual objective: on a polysystemic level Krog’s position and status as translator and that of her translation products within the Afrikaans and English literary field in South Africa is researched; on a sociocultural level Bourdieu’s concept habitus is employed in order to explore the underlying force behind Krog’s translation process. The focus throughout is on Krog’s double writing, the overlapping of the act of writing and the act of translating as it resonates on textual and metatextual level. Although a Bourdieusian reading of translations is a relatively unexplored terrain in the South African translation field, this study aims to add fresh insights into a dispositional view of the translator in his or her space within the literary field. In the course of this study philosophical concepts of Deleuze and Guattari, Kristeva and Bhabha are employed. Deleuze and Guattari’s concept minor literature is employed insofar the act of translation and the translation product reflects a different subjectivity. Kristeva’s concept the abject is likewise explored in the way it is reflected in Krog’s writing and translating. In the end it is argued that Krog, when writing in her non-mother tongue and when translating, is situated in a hybrid space, an in-between space. This study thus shifts from a polysystemic analysis of Krog’s translation products to a more individual approach and the notion that Krog’s habitus as writer is inextricably linked to her habitus as translator; that translation is an embodied process. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie proefskrif is ’n studie van Antjie Krog as vertaler binne die Afrikaanse en Engelse literêre veld in Suid-Afrika. In hierdie studie word daar slegs op Krog se vertaling van haar eie werk gekonsentreer, naamlik die prosawerke Country of my skull en A change of tongue/’n Ander tongval, en die poësie Down to my last skin, die sterre sê ‘tsau’/the stars say ‘tsau’ en Verweerskrif/Body bereft. Hoewel Krog ook as vertaler van ander skrywers se werk bekend is, is dit veral die konsep selfvertaling wat in hierdie studie van belang is: om te skryf deur vertaling en vertaal deur te skryf. Die studie neem ’n tweeledige vorm aan: op ’n polisistemiese vlak word die posisie en status van Krog as vertaler, en ook van haar vertaalprodukte binne die Afrikaanse en Engelse literêre veld in Suid-Afrika ondersoek; op ’n sosiokulturele vlak word Bourdieu se konsep habitus ingespan ten einde die onderliggende dryfvere agter die vertaalproses van Krog te ondersoek. Die deurlopende fokus is op die dubbele skrywerskap van Krog; die oorvleueling van die skryfhandeling en vertaalhandeling soos dit op tekstuele en metatekstuele vlak resoneer. Alhoewel ’n sosiokulturele (Bourdieuaanse) lesing van vertaaltekste ’n relatief onbekende terrein in Suid-Afrikaanse vertaalteoretiese kringe is, wil hierdie studie aantoon dat ’n disposisionele beskouing van die vertaler in sy of haar ruimte binne die literêre veld vars insigte bring. Deur die loop van die studie word filosofiese konsepte van Deleuze en Guattari, Kristeva en Bhabha betrek. Deleuze en Guattari se denkinstrument van ’n mineurletterkunde word ingespan sover die vertaalhandeling en -produk ’n andersoortige subjektiwiteit weerspieël. Hierbenewens word Kristeva se konsep van die abjekte in Krog se skryf- en vertaalhandeling ondersoek. Uiteindelik word dit aangevoer dat Krog as vertaler binne ’n hibriede ruimte, ’n tussenruimte funksioneer wanneer sy in Engels skryf en wanneer sy vertaal. Hierdie studie beweeg dus van ’n polisistemiese ondersoek na Krog se vertaalprodukte tot by ’n meer individuele ondersoek na die beskouing dat Krog se habitus as skrywer onlosmaaklik verbind is aan haar habitus as vertaler, en dat die proses van vertaling ’n beliggaamde proses is.

The purpose of this thesis is to contribute to a better understanding of the role of Swedish literature for adolescents in the French literary scene in the early 2000s. The sociology of literature constitutes the main theoretical framework of this thesis. Drawing from examples that broach the sensitive topic of "unprovoked violence" as it is treated in two Swedish novels for teenagers, Spelar död [Play Death] by Stefan Casta and När tågen går förbi (Train Wreck) by Malin Lindroth, this thesis shows how these novels are innovative in Even-Zohar’s sense of the term, as addressed in his Polysystem Theory (1990). By introducing "unprovoked violence" and violent teenagers via a realistic genre, such works filled a vacuum in the French system and injected a new dynamic into it. This dynamic makes it possible for new literary models to be introduced in the system and to change the standards of that system. The analyses of the French and Swedish receptions of the two novels mentioned above show that they gave rise to a moral panic in France, which is not an unusual thing to happen in periods of ongoing change. This also clarifies the differences in norms between the two systems. The French system tends to reject dark topics, while the Swedish wishes to discuss them. The investigations of the translations of unprovoked violence show that adherence to Swedish norms determine the translation’s adequacy (Toury), which may be part of the reason for the stormy reception the two works received in France, and their undergoing censure. The position of translators and publishers in the literary system also plays a major role for a translated text not being censured during the transfer from one system to another. Even if the Swedish titles translated into French are few, this thesis shows that the impact of Swedish literature on adolescents in France is certain. By introducing new and sensitive topics, such novels could be early markers of an evolution of the French field of literature for adolescents.

Abstract Research on the translation of children’s literature in South Africa is currently in its nascent stages. This study aims to provide a comprehensive descriptive overview of current practices in the translation of children’s literature in South Africa, particularly against the backdrop of the educational context. It espouses a broadly causal view of translation, but also encompasses a comparative and process model (see Chesterman, 2000). Translation is used to a significant degree in the production of children’s books in South Africa. However, it is not clear exactly to what degree translation is utilised, nor is there any information available about how translation contributes to the production of children’s books in South Africa. This study addresses these questions. Based on survey research among publishers, and the analysis of publishing data, it finds that there are significant differences between the ways in which translation is used in the production of children’s books in the various languages in South Africa. Specifically, translation is used much more extensively in the African languages than in Afrikaans and English, with a correspondingly lower incidence of original production in the African languages. Furthermore, the educational discourse has a profound effect on the uses of translation in the production of children’s books in South Africa. However, the educational discourse has a greater determining effect on the production of books for children in the African languages than in Afrikaans and English. Theoretical discourse surrounding domestication and foreignisation is particularly problematic in the South African context, and findings from a survey among translators indicate that translators from different language groups have different opinions about whether children’s books should be translated using domesticating or foreignising approaches. The above findings broadly deal with the contextual dimension. They are concerned with how social, ideological and material factors and discourses affect the ways in which translation is used in the production of children’s books in South Africa. At this point the matter of translation theory is introduced. It is questioned to what degree contemporary context-oriented translation theory manages to provide a satisfactory explanation of the South African situation. It is argued that polysystem theory and Toury’s (1995) concept of translation norms provides some explanation of the translational dynamics evident in the production of children’s books in the different languages in South Africa. However, some aspects of the South African situation do not neatly “fit” into polysystem theory, and some parts of the theory therefore have to be mediated or reconsidered, particularly utilising postcolonial and more ideologically sensitive perspectives, to satisfactorily account for the South African situation. This reconsideration leads to a conception of the relationship between translation and its context that is less binary and determinist, with a greater emphasis on hybridity and fluidity. This contextual dimension of the study spills over into the textual dimension. All of the above contextual and process-oriented factors finally find their precipitation in actual translations. By means of close analysis of a sample of 42 (21 translations and their source texts) English and Afrikaans children’s books intended for leisure reading and for educational reading, this part of the study investigates the norms evident in the selection of children’s books for translation, as well as the operational norms evident from the translations. The key questions here are why particular texts are selected for translation, and how cultural markers in these texts are handled in translation. The analysis demonstrates that the selection of books for translation (preliminary translation norms) is dependent on contextual as well as textual factors, with ideology and function playing particularly important roles. These roles differ for different types of books, books of different origins, and books in different language pairs. In terms of the operational norms, translators’ opinions about domestication and foreignisation do not necessarily correspond to translation practices. Rather than an exclusive, binary adherence to domesticating and foreignising approaches, analyses of the operational norms evident in translated children’s books demonstrate a hybridised mix of domesticating and foreignising strategies, which vary according to the type of book, the origin of the book, and the language pair involved in the translation process.

[pt] O presente estudo tem como objetivo geral discutir o papel e o poder da tradução como difusora das Sagradas Escrituras e, como objetivos específicos, (i) investigar o processo de reescrita pelo qual passou a Bíblia desde sua formação até suas traduções, (ii) examinar os diferentes posicionamentos da Igreja perante as traduções vernaculares, e (iii) discutir a sua chancela a projetos tradutórios distintos, a partir da análise do projeto tradutório/editorial da Bíblia Sagrada - Nova Tradução na Linguagem de Hoje, da Paulinas Editora, versão católica da Bíblia protestante editada pela Sociedade Bíblica do Brasil. Conceitos como reescrita e patronagem são centrais na pesquisa, que apresenta, ainda, os projetos tradutórios significativos da história da tradução bíblica, examinando questões pertinentes e suas abordagens tradutórias. O estudo adota uma abordagem descritivista, nos moldes dos Descriptive Translation Studies e da teoria dos polissistemas de Itamar Even-Zohar (1990). A descrição estrutural dessa Bíblia de traços ecumênicos, incluindo seus paratextos e metatextos, parte do esquema de análise de traduções proposto por José Lambert e Hendrick van Gorp (1985) e revela não apenas o seu contexto sistêmico frente a outras traduções, mas também o quanto os projetos tradutórios/editoriais bíblicos refletem os propósitos ideológicos e/ou institucionais de sua patronagem. Sua recepção também é investigada através de uma pesquisa de campo entre Círculos Bíblicos católicos, e seu confronto microestrutural com outras traduções, como a Bíblia de Jerusalém e a Bíblia Ave-Maria, revela a existência de textos finais muito distintos, os quais são igualmente autorizados pela Igreja como o mesmo texto sagrado. / [en] The general aim of this study is to reflect upon the role and power of translation as disseminator of the Holy Scriptures. Regarding specific aims, the study intends to (i) investigate the process of rewriting the Bible has experienced from its formation to its translations, (ii) examine the different positions taken by the Church on vernacular translations, as well as (iii) discuss its seal of approval to various translation projects based on the analysis of Paulinas Editora s translation/editorial project of Bíblia Sagrada - Nova Tradução na Linguagem de Hoje, a Catholic version of a Protestant Bible published by Sociedade Bíblica do Brasil. Concepts as rewriting and patronage are central to this research, which also presents the significant translation projects in the history of Bible translation, considering translation approaches and some relevant related issues. The study adopts a descriptive approach grounded on Descriptive Translation Studies and Itamar Even-Zohar s polysystem theory (1990). The structural description of this ecumenically-designed Bible, including its paratexts and metatexts, departs from José Lambert and Hendrick van Gorp s scheme for translation analysis (1985) and reveals not only its systemic context regarding other translations, but also to what extent biblical translation/editorial projects mirror the ideological and/or institutional aims of their patronage. This Bible s reception is investigated through a field research among Catholic Biblical Circles, and a micro-level comparison with other translations, such as Bíblia de Jerusalém and Bíblia Ave-Maria, unveils the existence of very different final texts, which are equally authorized by the Church as being the same holy text.

Denna uppsats består av en längre översättning av förordet samt de tre första kapitlen ur den populärvetenskapliga boken The Forger’s Spell (2009) från engelska till svenska. Till det följer ett avsnitt med kommentarer på översättningsproblem som uppstod under processen. Syftet med denna uppsats är att etablera en lämplig översättningsprincip sett till faktorer som textens genre, position i polysystemet och stilistiska drag samt att skapa en målspråksanpassad översättning. Det översättningsteoretiska ramverket består av Even-Zohars (2012) polysystemteori, där översatt sakprosa befinner sig på en sekundär position i det svenska litterära systemet, vilket pekar mot en målspråksinriktad översättning. Vidare bygger det också på Nidas (2012) dynamiska ekvivalensteori, vars mål är att skapa en ekvivalent läsupplevelse för målspråksläsaren. Ramverket, tillsammans med en analys av källtexten låg till grund för översättningsprincipen som var att skapa en målspråksinriktad översättning. Något som framkom i processen var det faktum att denna översättning innebar en överföring mellan tre kulturer och några intressanta problem uppstod relaterat till detta. Syftet med uppsatsen uppfylldes, en teoretiskt förankrad princip etablerades och en översättning utformades nära utefter den, vilket resulterade i en målspråksanpassad, dynamiskt ekvivalent översättning. / This essay contains a longer translation of an excerpt from English to Swedish of the popular science book The Forger’s Spell by Edward Dolnick, with comments on translation issues that surfaced during the process. The purpose of the essay was to establish a translation principle, suitable for the book’s genre, position within the polysystem, stylistic features as well as creating a target language-oriented translation. The theoretical framework for the essay consisted of Even-Zohar’s polysystem theory, by which translated non-fictional prose has a secondary position within the Swedish literary system. This points to it being translated in a target language-oriented manner. It also builds upon Nida’s dynamic equivalence, by which the goal is to create an equivalent reading experience for the target language reader as the source language reader had. This framework, combined with a textual analysis performed on the source text laid the foundation of the translation principle, which was to create a target language-oriented translation. The fact this translation meant a transmission of three different cultures emerged during this process, and some interesting problems related to this needed solving. The purpose of the essay was fulfilled, a theoretically grounded translation principle was established, and a translation was produced closely from it which resulted in a target language oriented, dynamically equivalent translation.

La recherche présentée dans le cadre de ce mémoire porte sur le développement de la Théorie linguistique de la traduction telle qu’élaborée par des traducteurs soviétiques à partir des années 1950. Ce mémoire vise à démontrer les particularités de l’évolution des connaissances traductologiques sous la pression politique, idéologique et institutionnelle du régime soviétique (1922-1991). En particulier, le travail cherche à expliquer les raisons qui ont abouti à l’isolement théorique de la traductologie russe. À partir de la théorie du polysystème littéraire d’Even-Zohar et de son analyse de la structure des systèmes littéraires, ce mémoire examine la structure et l’évolution des différents facteurs (producteur, institutions, produit, répertoire, marché) qui ont façonné la configuration spécifique de la Théorie linguistique de la traduction en tant que produit du système soviétique de traduction, tel qu’il se développe dans les conditions particulières du polysystème littéraire soviétique. L’analyse des travaux des auteurs dits « canonisés » de l’approche linguistique russe (Fyodorov, Retsker, Švejtser, Barkhoudarov, Komissarov) permet de montrer comment la Théorie linguistique de la traduction s’est imposée comme la seule théorie capable de survivre au contexte soviétique de pression idéologique et de contrôle total du régime communiste. Ce sont ces facteurs qui expliquent aussi le décalage théorique et institutionnel observé entre les traductologies russe et occidentale. / The research presented in this work focuses on the development of the Linguistic Theory of Translation as initially formulated by Soviet translators in the 1950s. The goal of this study is to analyse the particular evolution of translation scholarship in the Soviet era (1922-1991) in a context of political, ideological and institutional pressure and control. Besides, this work seeks to clarify the reasons why the Russian approach to translation became isolated from other theoretical developments in the field. Based on Even-Zohar’s theory of literary polysystem and his analysis of the structure of literary systems, this thesis examines the various factors (producer, institutions, product, repertoire, market) whose changing configuration conditioned the development of the Linguistic Theory of Translation, as a product of a specific translation system within the Soviet literary polysystem. Our analysis of the works of “canonical” theoreticians of the Russian linguistic approach to translation (Fyodorov, Retsker, Švejtser, Barkhoudarov, Komissarov) shows that the Linguistic Theory of Translation was the only theory that could survive the Soviet context of ideological pressure and total control of the communist regime. These very factors, we also argue, explain the theoretical and institutional gap that separates the Russian Linguistic Theory from Western approaches to translation.

[pt] O mercado de tradução para legendagem de programas de TV sofre com a carência de profissionais, constatação que se baseia numa experiência pessoal de doze anos de atuação nessa área. A presente dissertação busca investigar os motivos dessa carência e propor as bases para um curso de formação de legendadores, a partir de uma perspectiva polissistêmica e descritivista da tradução e de uma visão pós-estruturalista do ensino. A proposta aqui apresentada fundamentou-se em um levantamento das competências e habilidades que todo tradutor para legendas precisa desenvolver, elaborado a partir de entrevistas realizadas com importantes atores do polissistema de tradução para legendagem, bem como na análise das normas, coerções e mecanismos de controle com os quais o legendador se vê obrigado a lidar em sua atividade. A reflexão desenvolvida contempla questões metodológicas e de conteúdo e aborda as peculiaridades que caracterizam a tradução para legendas, procurando oferecer uma alternativa que contraponha uma ênfase na formação ao caráter de treinamento que costuma estar associado à maioria dos cursos atualmente disponíveis. Pretende-se, dessa forma, garantir a maior aproximação e interação entre academia e mercado de trabalho, o que deverá redundar em benefício para ambos. / [en] The television subtitling market suffers from a shortage of professionals, as has been attested by twelve years of personal experience in the industry. The purpose of this research was to investigate the reasons behind this shortage and suggest the basis for implementing a course program on subtitling for TV from a descriptive and polysystemic perspective on translation and a poststructuralist view on education. The proposal presented was based on a list of competencies and abilities every subtitle translator must develop, elaborated from interviews with important actors in the translation for subtitles polysystem, and on the analysis of the norms, constraints and control mechanisms with which the subtitler must deal in his or her professional capacity. The considerations brought forth contemplate methodological and content issues and tackle the peculiarities of subtitling, aiming to offer an alternative to the emphasis on training rather than on education which is usually associated with most courses currently available. Thus, this dissertation intends to guarantee a greater interchange between university and industry, which should bring about benefits for both.