The purpose of this essay is to analyze how certain elements of panopticism manage to dismantle the notion of privacy in George Orwell’s novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. By reading the text through a lens of panopticism, a theory introduced by Jeremy Bentham, I give examples on how the surveillance methods used by the Party share similarities with the system of surveillance within a Panoptic prison, but also in what ways that they differ. In the end, it is obvious that the society of Oceania cannot be considered to be a complete Panopticon, although several elements of panopticism are present within the text and that they dismantle the aspect of privacy in the novel.

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När man inom filosofihistorien diskuterat frågan om djuret, har utgångspunkten ofta varit en negativ kontrast till det mänskliga. Medan människan tillskrivits förmågor som medvetenhet, rationalitet och förmåga till tal och språk, har djuret framställts som något som brister i dessa egenskaper. Dock har det uppkommit nya teorier om djuret som skiljer sig från en sådan metafysisk tradition . Peter Singer lyfter i sin bok, Praktisk Etik, att medvetande och självmedvetandeargument som syftat till att tillskriva människan en särställning gentemot djuret inte längre kan vidmakthållas. Vi har snarare skäl att tro det omvända. Jacques Derrida är likt Singer intresserad av att ändra synen på djuret som en brist i relation till det mänskliga men Derrida föreslår en radikalare lösning. Vi måste enligt Derrida dekonstruera (”bryta ner”) det antropocentriska, metafysiska subjektet - och de strukturer som inbegrips i det - för att se hur dess innehåll har fått människan att bruka våld mot djuret. Även om Derrida och Singer skiljer sig när det gäller att problematisera den metafysiska distinktionen mellan människa och djur. tar man avstamp från samma punkt, nämligen från Jeremy Benthams lidandebegrepp. / When discussing the issue of the animal within the history of philosophy, the aspect has often been somewhat of a negative contrast to what is humane. Whilst the human race has been attributed with abilities such as consciousness, rationality and the ability to speak, the animal has been described as something that lacks these abilities. However, new theories concerning the animal have arisen, theories that differentiate from such metaphysical tradition. In Praktisk Etik, Peter Singer raises an argument claiming that consciousness and self-consciousness concerning the matter of attributing humans with an exceptional position towards the animals, no longer can be admitted as valid. We more likely have the reason to believe the opposite. Jacques Derrida is like Singer interested in changing the attitude towards the animal as a flaw in relation to what is humane, but Derrida proposes a more radical solution. According to Derrida, we have to deconstruct the anthropocentric, metaphysical subject – and the structures that embodies this – to be able to see how its content has made the human being maltreat the animal. Although Derrida and Singer separate in their opinions concerning the problematizing of the metaphysical distinction between the human being and the animal, they take off from the same point of view, namely from Jeremy Bentham’s concept of suffering. / Nicklas Lindgren

The existence or abolishment of adultery has been a dispute in academic circles for a long time. Though, it is permissible under the Constitution, according to the Constitutional Interpretation 554. However, many domestic law scholars and feminists argue that adultery should allow to be decriminalized from the perspectives of proportional principle, balance of criminal law¡¦s interest and comparative legal institution. This dissertation analyses the crime of adultery in current days via a newly emerging research approach, namely legal economics. To begin with, I clarify and confirm the legal interests in which marriage and family institutions are involved, that is to say the right of family, whom the crime of adultery in criminal law protects. Taking them as a analysis benchmark, and apply them to be the criterion on the assessment of crime of adultery thereafter. Then, use the concepts of demand, cost and benefit as tools, analyze the feasors and victim of adultery comparatively on the basis of the practice of current prosecution and judgement. The analysis shows that the norms of current crime of adultery couldn¡¦t objectively prevent it from happening. Moreover, it is a burden for the victim wife to start a lawsuit. The advantages obtained from criminal lawsuit could simply be retrieved from claim right in civil code. Besides, lawsuit started by victim wife always lead to family disharmony which at the same time contradicts the benefit of family right entitled by the crime itself. It infers that the crime of adultery should be discriminalized. During the research process, I also analyze the philosophical essence and theory of legal economics, which affirm the legitimate application of economics on law research. Will it lack protection on marriage and family institution after crime of adultery being discriminalized? The article considers this in a view of basic rights protection in the Constitution. How could we fullfil the protection through the law of a lower-level after the crime of adultery being recognized as the protection of family right, which at the same time the basic right the Constitution protects? After summarizing perspectives of theory and practice could be divided to the one that involves the conclusion of marriage, the termination of freedom and monogamy as a narrow interpretation of family right, and nurturing teenagers and protecting family members as broad interpretation on the other. Thus, the way of legalization should be different due to the distinction of broad and narrow family right. As to the narrow family right, it should focus on protection of the right of freedom. In addition, according to the rigidity of criminal law, especially being reviewed by proportional principle, there should be no need to limit the execution of freedom right, when it involves adultery, a stronger behavior in ethical level. Therefore, the existence of crime of adultery is unnecessary. There is a necessity that the Constitution Interpretation 554 needs to be reviewed. However, as far as the broad interpretation of family right is concerned, the criminal law couldn¡¦t force people to accomplish certain do¡¦s and don¡¦ts if it makes great damages to human dignity or jeopardizes the continuity of personality and family.

This thesis examines the development of self-help as an ideology and as an organisational principle for poor relief and how it came to dominate discussions over poverty and crucially inform the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834. The continuity of self-help with earlier discussions and reviews of the poor laws is explored and emphasised, as is the continuing moral core of poor relief despite historians’ frequent ascription of de-moralisation to the new political economy that came to heavily influence poor law discourse. The thesis analyses the evolution of the poor laws and of attitudes to poverty and begins with an examination of a divergence in the discourse relating to poverty between a more formal and centralised institutional approach and a more devolved, permissive institutional approach; the latter gained precedence due to its closer proximity to a dominant mode of thinking (as analysed by A. W. Coats) about the poor that held self-betterment as offering a solution to poverty most appropriate to the governance structures of the day. The greater role given to self-betterment and the natural affinity of more devolved schemes with a macroeconomic political economy framework pushed the evolution of poor law discourse along a route of emphasising individual probity and agency over the established model of community cohesion. Parallel to this divergence was the development of distinct intellectual traditions within poor law discourse between the older natural-law tradition of a natural right to subsistence and a new ideology of the natural law of markets and of competition for resources. By analysis of the thought of writers such as Thomas Robert Malthus, Jeremy Bentham, Patrick Colquhoun, David Davies, Frederick Morton Eden, Edmund Burke, etc., it is shown that this newer conception of natural law, encompassing a less interventionist and more macroeconomic approach (involving the deployment of statistics and abstraction, as explored by S. Sherman), proved more compatible with the devolved, more permissive institutional approach and so came to take precedence over that of the natural right to subsistence, which was associated more with traditional paternalism and community-level responses to scarcity and poverty. The natural law tradition spoke more to the abstract conceptions of poverty associated at this time with the greater deployment of statistics and tables in the analysis of social problems. It is demonstrated how writers of the period utilised utilitarian conceptions and nascent political economic arguments to portray the greater good of the country as a whole as possessed of greater moral and economic authority than more traditional ‘moral economy’ responses, and that vocabularies of virtue and duty were used to illustrate and justify such a shift. This set the scene for self-betterment as an economic strategy to evolve into an ideology of self-help which was developed as the panacea of poverty and the answer to the social dislocations caused by industrialisation. Self-help came to the fore as an approach that was more politically resonant in the era of revolutionary France and which enabled a more permissive institutional apparatus to be advanced. These institutions, such as allotments, savings banks and schools of industry, came to prominence in the period 1816-1820 and pertained more to macroeconomic understandings of poverty. They were expounded using a theme, that of ‘character’, that described poverty as the result of personal imprudence and hence as treatable, the most appropriate level for this treatment being that of the individual. The reforms of 1818-19 and the debates that informed them are given an extended analysis as they formed the crucial juncture in the cohering of self-help as an ideology and a paradigmatic shift in poor law policy towards greater discrimination underwritten by self-help. Finally, the 1834 Poor law Reform Act is explained in terms of the ideological development of arguments of self-help and character towards a more punitive and disciplinarian platform for enforcing self-help, with the cost-efficient and systematic institutional approach of Bentham adapted to the purpose.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T14:16:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Marcia Cristina Otaviani.pdf: 615650 bytes, checksum: 4c9d9c3902d84331c8dbc12d1e50b905 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-05-20 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was na English philosopher who wrote about how human actions should be treated. He believed only two sovereign masters should govern us all. Pleasure and pain should tell us what is right and what is wrong. Bentham thought that every man seeks actions to maximize pleasure and diminish pain. The author believed that human actions could be treated in a scientific fashion. To his objective, he proposed a moral science and, as a criteria to measure the masters which manage human actions Bentham developed a theory to quantify pleasure and pain. Such calculus will be presented in this paper in a manner to verify its characteristics. Hereby, we will demonstrate how science and art were understood by the author, as well as, his thoughts regarding logic, language and how knowledge has been perceived by man / Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) foi um filósofo inglês que viveu durante os séculos XVIII e XIX e escreveu sobre como as ações humanas deveriam ser tratadas. Ele acreditava que somente duas forças deveriam dizer o que devemos ou não fazer. Essas forças, segundo o autor eram: o prazer e a dor. Todo homem, para Bentham, busca ações que maximizem o prazer ou diminuam a dor. O autor acreditava que as ações humanas podiam ser tratadas de maneira cientifica. Para alcançar tal objetivo ele propôs uma ciência da moral e, como critério para medir as forças que governam as ações humanas, Bentham desenvolveu um modo de mensurar o prazer e a dor. Iremos nesse trabalho expor como o autor propôs tal cálculo, buscando verificar quais eram suas características. Para isso, faremos uma apresentação de como o autor entendia ciência e arte e das suas idéias acerca da lógica, da linguagem e de como o autor acreditava que o conhecimento seria adquirido pelo homem

Toute économie ainsi que toute science a pour mission d’atteindre un certain progrès dans son domaine. Or si nous pouvons tous être d’accord sur ce point, nous ne partageons pas forcément la même définition du progrès. Pour élucider cette divergence de compréhension, nous avons pris le parti d’adhérer à une distinction entre éthique et morale : là où tout ordre moral consiste à ordonner les éléments d’un cadre déterminé pour une fin donnée, une posture éthique consiste à adopter et à adapter un principe faisant autorité pour découvrir un environnement alors inconnu. Nous avançons alors que le domaine de l’économie ainsi que toute idée de progrès ne peuvent être rattachés qu’à un ordre moral et non à une posture éthique. Pour illustrer ces propos, nous menons une réflexion sur la question de l’identité, notion certes vide et idéologique mais qui permet tout de même, couplée avec la distinction entre éthique et morale, de nous concentrer notamment sur les notions d’Etat, de personne ou encore de pouvoir. Ces réflexions nous éclairent sur certains fondements de l’économie et sur la philosophie utilitariste, philosophie avant tout liée au langage et de ce fait à la notion d’identité une fois encore ; utilitarisme et économie seraient en un sens déterministes, nous permettant d’accéder à un bonheur identifiable et vers lequel nous pourrions progresser. Ainsi nous avançons que le progrès ne peut qu’être conçu à partir d’un ordre moral et qu’il faille plutôt rechercher un certain équilibre pour que la dimension éthique puisse être elle aussi cultivée, au même titre que la catallaxie puisse être encouragée au côté de l’économie. / Every economics or science has to reach some progress in its field. But, if we can agree on this point, we do not necessarily share the same definition of progress. To clarify this divergence of understanding, we have chosen to distinguish between ethics and morals: if a moral order permits to order elements in a determined frame for a specific goal, an ethical posture means to adopt and to adapt an authoritative principle for the discovery of an unknown environment. We advance that the economic field and the idea of progress can only be associated with a moral order and not with an ethical posture. To illustrate that, we conduct a reflection about identity, which is an empty and ideological notion but which allows us, along the distinction between ethics and morals, to focus especially on notions like State, person or power. These reflections can enlighten us about some foundations of economics and utilitarianism which is a philosophy deeply related to language and then with the notion of identity once again; utilitarianism and economics are in a certain way playing a defining role, allowing us to reach a well-being which we can identify and to which we can progress. Thereby, we are advancing that the progress can only be conceived from a moral order and that we should search a kind of equilibrium to let the ethical dimension be cultivated, as well as to encourage catallaxy outre economics.

A tribo Ingeae Benth. compreende 36 gêneros, destes 24 são endêmicos do Novo Mundo, de 935 a 966 espécies, que se difundem nas regiões tropicais, subtropicais e temperadas. Para o Brasil são estimados 16 gêneros, 302 espécies, 10 subespécies e 46 variedades. O presente estudo objetivou contribuir para o conhecimento da diversidade de espécie dessa tribo na Floresta Nacional de Caxiuanã. Foram reconhecidos sete gêneros, 27 espécies, uma subespécie e duas variedades. O gênero mais representativo foi Inga Mill. com 17 espécies distribuídas em sete seções: Inga seção Bourgonia (/. alba (Sw.) Willd., I. hrachyrhachis Harms, I. cylindrica (Vell.) Mart., /. laurina (Sw.) Willd. e 1. microcalyx Spruce ex Benth.); Inga seção Inga (/. edulis Mart.); Inga seção Leptinga (/. gracilifoliã Ducke, I. paraensis Ducke e I. ohidensis Ducke); Inga seção Longiflorae (/. grandiflora Ducke, I. longiflora Spruce ex Benth., I. micradenia Spruce ex Benth. e I. ruhiginosa (Rich.) DC.); Inga seção Multijugae (/. thihaudiana DC. subsp. thihaudiana); Inga seção Pseudinga (/. capitata Desv. e I. stipidares DC.) e Inga seção Tetragonae (/. macrophylla Humb. & Bonpl. ex Wilk). Em seguida vem Abarema Pittier, que está representado por três espécies (A. jupunba (Willd.) Britton & Killip, A. mataybifolia (Sand.) Bameby & J. W. Grimes e Abarema sp.); Calliandra Benth. com duas espécies (C. surinamensis Benth. e Calliandra sp.); Zygia P. Browne com duas espécies e uma variedade (Z racemosa (Ducke) Barneby & J. W. Grimes e Zygia latifolia (L.) Fawc. & Rendle var. lasiopus (Benth.) Barneby & J. W. Grimes); Enterolobium Mart. {E. schomburgkii (Benth.) Benth.); Hydrochorea Barneby & J. W. Grimes (H. corymbosa (Rich.) Barneby & J. W. Girmes) e Macrosamanea Britton & Rose ex Britton & Killip (M pubiramea (Steud.) Bameby & J. W. Grimes var. pubiramea). São apresentas chaves de identificação, descrições e ilustrações dos táxons, além de dados adicionais sobre distribuição geográfica, comentários e fenologia.

La présente étude est une recherche empirique sur les conditions de détention en isolement administratif et disciplinaire dans les pénitenciers canadiens. Les recherches récentes sur l’isolement constatent que ce type de placement produit des conséquences négatives sur les détenus, tant au niveau physique, psychologique et social en raison des conditions de vie dans lesquelles ils sont placés. La littérature existante n’aborde que très peu les conditions de vie des détenus en isolement en contexte carcéral canadien. Notre recherche vise donc à combler cette carence de la littérature scientifique par l’entremise du Bureau de l’enquêteur correctionnel, organisme de dernier recours que disposent les détenus pour faire valoir leurs droits concernant leurs conditions de vie. Notre objectif principal consiste à étudier ce que les plaintes, que les détenus mis en isolement formulent auprès du BEC, nous permettent de dire des conditions de vie en isolement. Nous avons ainsi entrepris de présenter le contenu des plaintes acceptées par le BEC en les analysant à travers les privations de Sykes (1958) et d’analyser les problèmes de fond des plaintes à travers le principe de moindre éligibilité de Bentham (1796). Nous avons réalisé une analyse empirique des plaintes des détenus formulées au BEC entre 2013 et 2015, soit 134 dossiers, incluant 244 plaintes. Malgré les limitations du matériel empirique obtenu, nous avons constaté que la douleur de l’emprisonnement se manifeste non seulement à travers trois des privations de Sykes, mais aussi à travers d’autres types de privations, qui étaient auparavant incluses dans la privation de liberté : l’absence de relation familiale, la restriction de mouvement et le manque de reconnaissance. De plus, nos résultats nous permettent de proposer une réflexion sur le principe de moindre éligibilité, tel que vécu par les détenus en isolement, piste de recherche qui mérite d’être approfondie.