and keywords FinTech and AML from a legal perspective The subject matter of this thesis is the impact of regulations preventing money laundering and terrorism financing in the field of FinTech. The goal is to analyse these regulations and to offer a critical standpoint which would reflect the technological development in the financial sector and take into consideration the cost of adhering to these regulations. With this objective in mind, the first chapter defines the concept of FinTech, breaks down its specifics and provides typical examples of the financial services currently fitting this definition. In the second chapter, the obligations stemming from the AML/CFT rules are defined along with an evaluation of their impact on obliged persons. The current and future possibilities of remote identification which represents the simplest way of acquiring a client are further evaluated in a separate chapter. In the last part, this paper analyses the applicability of the AML/CFT Act in relation to neobanking, crowdfunding and crypto-assets. The paper concludes by summarizing the findings, formulating views on the current state of the topic, and presenting suggestions for future development. Money laundering and terrorism financing are detrimental social phenomena affecting the FinTech sector. The...

Magister Legum - LLM / Our lives, work, and behaviour have been changed both positively and negatively by the digital presence that has grown tremendously over the last three decades, and with this exponential growth, we cannot predict where we will be, digitally-speaking, in the years to come. As it stands in South Africa and the majority of the world today, we find that the law is yet to catch up to the technological explosion, in particular to the concept of digital assets. Digital material that is produced and purchased form a big part of our daily lives as we continue to consume media online, use social media platforms, and invest in cryptocurrency. The question of whether South African law makes sufficient provision for the incorporation of digital assets and, in particular, cryptocurrency in inter vivos or testamentary trust is yet to be fully established.

This study explores the adop)on of crypto assets and the onboarding of new users into Web 3.0 products through the lens of interac)on design. By employing par)cipatory design methodology during the design process, this work inves)gates the challenges faced by beginner or occasional users. By analyzing tradi)onal banking applica)ons like Revolut, Swish, and Slovak Tatra Banka, and comparing them with Binance exchange, the study proposes an approach to new technological applica)ons based on situa)onal normality theory. The final concept contributes to the discussion on the role interac)on design can play in the vola)le world of crypto assets and Web 3.0.

The development of Internet technology has promoted the progress of all aspects of society. Under the background of Internet finance, the traditional financial model is changing, such as currency payment. With the deepening of Internet technology, the virtualization of money is deepening, and the market entry, trading and payment methods are also subverting the tradition. Bitcoin as a new means of payment began to appear in the public eye. It is a challenge to the traditional way of trading supported by Internet technology. Despite the constant controversy since its inception, Bitcoin still occupies a place with its unique advantages - Asymmetric encryption, decentralization,transparency of transaction records and so on. In the eyes of opponents, Bitcoin is more of a highly speculative asset, and as it becomes progressively more difficult to mine, the cost of mining is increasing. However, in the eyes of supporters, it is a reliable means of payment, not subject to government supervision, nor will it produce a virtual transaction record. From the regulator's point of view, it is more like a shelter for unscrupulous people to evade regulation and commit money laundering and crime. It is undeniable that in just a few years, Bitcoin has developed to a certain scale,has a certain industrial chain...

The article discusses the intersection of anti-money laundering (AML) compliance and the handling of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) under German law or EU law applicable in Germany. It begins by acknowledging the negative perception of cryptocurrencies in the context of money laundering, emphasizing the need to explore AML regulations for NFTs, which have gained attention for tokenizing art. The text delves into the legal nature of NFTs, examining whether they can be classified as securities, asset investments, or crypto assets. It also explores the implications of these classifications on AML compliance, detailing the specific obligations for entities dealing with NFTs. The article concludes by highlighting the legal ambiguity surrounding NFTs and emphasizing the importance of conducting a case-by-case risk assessment for AML compliance.

Die Blockchain-Technologie revolutioniert die Interaktion zwischen Menschen durch Peer-to-Peer-Netzwerke, Kryptografie und Konsensalgorithmen. Trustless Trust ermöglicht sichere und transparente Transaktionen ohne Zwischenhändler. Trotz der zunehmenden Beliebtheit von Krypto-Assets und den damit verbundenen „Tokenomics“ hat die Öffentlichkeit immer noch kein umfangreiches Wissen über die Funktionsweisen dieser Technologie, und ein Großteil des Diskurses bleibt spekulativ. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit ist, die grundlegenden Prinzipien von Krytowährungen (Cryptos) und Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) zu untersuchen sowie eine Korrelation zwischen der Technologie und ihren Auswirkungen auf die Wirtschaft aus statistischer und wirtschaftlicher Sicht herzustellen. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, wird in den Kapiteln 2 und 3 der Einfluss der Blockchain-Technologie auf Ökonomie und Funktionsweise von Kryptowährungen anhand ökonometrischer Modelle und Clustering-Techniken untersucht. Kapitel 3 untersucht Kryptowirschaft und Blockchain-Funktionalität anhand empirischer Methoden, insbesondere für Coincreatoren und Investoren. Wir zeigen am Beispiel von Ethereum, dass die wirtschaftliche Leistung von Kryptowährungen durch die Gestaltung der ihnen zugrunde liegenden Blockchain-Technologie beeinflusst werden kann. Kapitel 4 untersucht die partiellen Korrelationen von Bitcoin-Renditen über neun verschiedene Zentralbörsen aus der Perspektive eines hochfrequenten, dynamischen Netzwerks. Die vorgeschlagene MHAR-CM liefert Kovarianzschätzungen, die die Besonderheiten der Kryptomärkte berücksichtigen. Das Kapitel zeigt Spillover- und Third-Party-Risiken zwischen diesen Börsen. Kapitel 5 verwendet eine Hedonische Bewertungsmethode, um den DAI Digital Art Index basierend auf dem NFT-Kunstmarkt zu konstruieren. Ein besonderer Fokus liegt auf der Nivellierung der Auswirkungen von Ausreißern mit einer einstufigen robusten Regressions-Huberisierung und einem dynamic conditional score model. Diese Arbeit verknüpft neue Technologien und Wirtschaft durch statistische Modellierung und Analyse. Durch die Bereitstellung empirischer Belege beobachten wir, wie die Blockchain-Technologie unsere Wahrnehmung von Geld, Kunst und anderen Branchen verändert. / The emergence of distributed ledger technologies, such as blockchain, has revolutionized how individuals interact by enabling "trust-less trust" through peer-to-peer networks, cryptography, and consensus algorithms. This technology eliminates intermediaries and provides secure, transparent transaction methods. However, public understanding of this technology, along with "Tokenomics", remains limited, resulting in speculative discourse. The main objective of this thesis is to investigate the fundamental principles of cryptocurrencies (cryptos) and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) and establish a correlation between the technology and its economic impact from statistical and economic perspectives. To achieve this, Chapters 2 and 3 explore the influence of blockchain technology on the economic and functional performance of cryptos using econometric models and clustering techniques. Chapter 3 presents an empirical framework that offers insights to coin creators and investors regarding the interplay between cryptonomics, blockchain functionality, and market dynamics. The economic performance of cryptocurrencies, illustrated with Ethereum as an example, is shown to be affected by the design of their underlying blockchain technology. Chapter 4 examines partial correlations of Bitcoin returns across nine centralized exchanges from a high-frequency dynamic network perspective. The proposed MHAR-CM provides reasonable covariance estimates that account for the unique characteristics of crypto markets. This chapter uncovers spillover risk and counterparty risk among these exchanges. In Chapter 5, a hedonic regression approach is employed to construct the DAI digital art index for the NFT art market. Special emphasis is given to mitigating the impact of outliers using one-step robust regression Huberization and a dynamic conditional score model. The DAI index enhances our understanding of this emerging art market and facilitates observation of its macroeconomic trends. This thesis establishes a connection between emerging technologies and the economy through statistical modeling and analysis. By providing empirical evidence, we gain insights into how blockchain technology is transforming our perceptions of money, art, and various industries.

Ur de senaste decenniernas tekniska innovation föddes så kallade kryptotillgångar. Kryptotillgångar är digitala enheter som är tillgängliga via teknik för distribuerad liggare. Marknaden för kryptotillgångar har expanderat avsevärt på senare år. Tidigare har handel med kryptotillgångar mest varit en bisyssla för tekniskt kunniga personer, men i takt med att kryptotillgångar ökar i popularitet växer investerarkretsen. Kryptotillgångar ägs huvudsakligen med investeringsavsikt men kan, beroende på den berörda kryptotillgångens egenskaper, skilja sig avsevärt från finansiella instrument. Det gör att befintliga EU-regelverk för finansiella tjänster sällan kan ligga till grund för bedömning vid kryptotillgångshandel. Det skapar i sin tur osäkerhet avseende investerarskyddet för konsumenter som handlar med kryptotillgångar. Marknaden för kryptotillgångar är hittills oreglerad på EU-nivå vilket har medfört spridda och otillräckliga regleringar avseende kryptotillgångar på nationell nivå i vissa medlemsstater. År 2020 publicerade Europeiska kommissionen ett förslag på reglering av kryptotillgångar där ett av syftena med förslaget är att stärka investerarskyddet vid kryptotillgångshandel. Om förslaget skulle implementeras innebär det betydande förändringar på kryptotillgångsmarknaden. De förslagna bestämmelserna innefattar bland annat ett EU-pass för emittenter av kryptotillgångar och leverantörer av kryptotillgångstjänster, krav för emittenter av kryptotillgångar att utge informationsdokument samt krav för leverantörer av kryptotillgångstjänster att bedöma om den berörda kryptotillgången är lämplig för kunden.  I uppsatsen undersöks vilka risker en investerare utsätts för vid handel av kryptotillgångar. Den övergripande risken som investerare utsätts för vid handeln är risken att förlora sitt investerade medel. Det i sig är inte en unik risk för kryptotillgångar då förluster förekommer även på marknader för finansiella instrument. Den största utmaningen avseende bristen på investerarskydd på kryptotillgångsmarknaden härleds emellertid till informationsasymmetrier. Det framkommer i uppsatsen att det krävs reglering på kryptotillgångsmarknaden för att säkerställa ett tillräckligt investerarskydd. Vidare diskuteras huruvida Europeiska kommissionens förordningsförslag står i paritet till de identifierade investerarskyddsriskerna. Sammantaget leder uppsatsen till slutsatsen att en reglering av kryptotillgångsmarknaden kan säkra investerarskyddet vid handel av kryptotillgångar genom att upprätta krav på informationsgivning för emittenter av kryptotillgångar och leverantörer av kryptotillgångstjänster.

Modern technologies change economic relations in society and gradually transform the legislative framework. Blockchain-based cryptocurrencies are probably one of the most striking examples. Although they increase in value and are widely accepted as means of payment by major corporations, many EU member states are just starting to implement solutions to regulate their use, including in terms of taxation. At the same time, the EU fails to introduce a unified approach to the taxation of cryptocurrency transactions in its common economic area. Accordingly, the question arises as to whether the unified approach is justified, given the example of individual member states. The analysis of German, French, and Italian legislation showed that each state has a different approach to understanding the essence of cryptocurrencies. For example, Germany and France rely on the definition of “virtual currency” set forth in EU Directive 2015/849. However, while Germany uses the “cryptoassets” term, France uses the more general “digital assets” concept. In turn, Italy hasn’t enshrined yet any clear definition of cryptocurrencies in its legislation. This may lead to contradictions when considering international cases in the EU. Differences in understanding the essence of cryptocurrencies inevitably lead to differences in taxation approaches. On the one hand, Germany, France, and Italy recognise the validity of ECJ judgment in case C-264/14, exempting cryptocurrency transactions from VAT. On the other hand, while in Germany the profit from cryptocurrency trading is included in total personal income, thus, changing the progressive tax rate, this option is not possible for occasional transactions in France and is wholly excluded in Italy. Moreover, French law provides tax exemption for crypto-to-crypto exchange transactions. In Italy, this approach is accepted in practice, although not covered by the law. In turn, in Germany, taxes are levied on any transactions, which complicates the process of calculating the tax and creates uncertainty in specific issues, such as staking. Differences in the taxation of cryptocurrency transactions pose a question of the possibility of legal harmonisation, which is justified due to the underdevelopment of the principles of taxation of cryptocurrency transactions at the level of individual EU members. However, as a more correct solution, it is proposed to take measures to harmonise legislation based on directives, as this will allow avoiding an adverse impact on the fiscal sovereignty of the EU members.

Disputes involving emerging technology, often leave a grey area on applicable law, as it is unlocated in the physical world. The problem with crypto-assets is partly driven by their underlying technology, allowing for the assets to be distributed in an international, digital sphere, and making it hard to pinpoint their territorial location and solve legal issues. This thesis, therefore, aims to clarify the questions of qualification and connecting factors for the choice of law when dealing with disputes concerning crypto-assets under a cross-border contractual agreement. It particularly seeks to examine consumer protection and the predictability of the choice of law in cryptocurrency trading. The thesis concludes that, for some specifically listed contracts, the applicable law is determined through hard and fast rules, but for other more complex contracts, the applicable law is determined by primarily examining the habitual residence of the operator of the characteristic performance, and secondarily, the closest connection. As to consumer contracts, a special rule appoints the law of the country where the consumer has his habitual residence, but only when several requirements are met. The rules pose problems with predictability and finding a territorial connection when the location of the assets or parties cannot be located. It is particularly a problem in decentralized cryptocurrency exchanges. Regarding the qualification, the thesis concludes that the current rules and statements do not provide a definite answer to the characterization of crypto-assets and require technically complex interpretations. Crypto-assets are mainly categorized based on their purpose, and the parties’ expectations. Therefore, fictional objectification of cryptocurrencies as movable property is possible when accepted as such by the parties. Moreover, cryptocurrency trading does not fall within traditional financial regulations but can be categorized as a service where the coins constitute a means of payment. Although the views are divided, causing uncertainty in the market, the obligations of traders are expected to be clarified through upcoming regulations.

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