In this thesis I aim to build a normative argument for equality of access to advantage at the global level, and motivate action conducive to the realization of this ideal. The normative argument is presented over the course of the first two chapters. In Chapter One I ask, ‘How should we conceive of distributive equality?’ Following G.A. Cohen, I argue that equality is best conceived as equality of access to advantage. I interpret this to require equal access to both ‘worldly autonomy’—a term I invoke to describe a certain basic threshold level of autonomy—and subjective preference satisfaction. In Chapter Two, I establish a justificatory basis for equality on a global scale. I argue that equality is justified at the global level on the basis of justice as reciprocity for the mutual provision of the global system of state-enforced borders, in which the participation of all people is equally necessary, and that makes possible a wide variety of institutional goods predominately enjoyed by people in rich developed countries. In Chapter Three, I take up the second aim of the thesis: to motivate action conducive to the realization of this global distributive ideal. I engage the concern that global equality is a poor ideal, demanding too much change in the attitudes and lifestyles of the well-off to motivate them to pursue it. I aim to show that, even if most people are not motivated to pursue global equality, there are alternative grounds for immediately feasible global reforms and redistributions likely to have greater motivational purchase on people’s sensibilities. Alternative grounds for redistribution and reform include reparative justice, cooperative justice, respect for basic human rights, and self-interest. Making these redistributions and reforms would not only be desirable from the perspective of the alternative grounds that explain them, but will have the further happy result of bringing the world closer to the global distributive ideal of equality of access to advantage. Plausibly, it will bring the world sufficiently close to this ideal that people will be motivated to pursue it for its own sake.

Esta tese tem o propósito de desenvolver uma argumentação normativa sobre justiça distributiva e saúde. São duas as questões que pautam a pesquisa: o que devemos uns aos outros, enquanto cidadãos de uma sociedade democrática, na promoção e proteção da saúde de nossos concidadãos? Quais obrigações e deveres de justiça que um Estado democrático possui perante a saúde de seus cidadãos? Para respondermos essas questões, inicialmente, buscamos apresentar um entendimento objetivo e publicamente acessível de necessidades de saúde. Essas necessidades estão relacionadas ao funcionamento normal das espécies e impactam o leque de oportunidades disponíveis ao longo de nossas vidas. Dialogando com a teoria da justiça como equidade, de Rawls, e com a extensão dessa teoria proposta por Daniels, defendemos que o conjunto das instituições, dos serviços, dos bens e dos recursos necessários à manutenção, ao reestabelecimento e à provisão de equivalentes funcionais ao funcionamento normal dos cidadãos devem ser distribuído de modo a respeitar o princípio de igualdade equitativa de oportunidades. Em sequência, desenvolvemos uma argumentação sobre o debate contemporâneo dedicado à definição e à defesa do princípio fundamental que deve balizar a justa distribuição dos mais variados distribuenda. Argumentamos que embora a justiça exija uma noção de igualdade (como a de igualdade democrática que defendemos) e não um patamar de suficiência ou um princípio de prioridade, esses critérios normativos podem auxiliar na formulação e na avaliação de políticas públicas e recomendações institucionais. Questionamos os ataques direcionados às teorias igualitárias, defendendo que essas teorias não podem ser reduzidas, nem obrigatoriamente exigem, a aplicação de princípios distributivos igualitários simples. Por fim, nos dedicamos a desenvolver uma argumentação sobre justiça e saúde centrada nas questões dos determinantes sociais da saúde e do gradiente social em saúde. Defenderemos, em diálogo com a literatura empírica sobre a questão, que políticas públicas de saúde devem ser baseadas em um ideal de igualdade democrática e devem assumir como uma pauta central a eliminação de iniquidades de saúde existentes entre grupos sociais, assim como combater injustiças estruturais presentes nas sociedades contemporâneas. / This thesis aims to develop a normative argument about distributive justice and health. Two questions underpin the study: what do we owe each other, as citizens of a democratic society, in the promotion and protection of the health of our fellow citizens? What justice obligations and duties does a democratic State have vis-à-vis the health of its citizens? Firstly, to answer these questions, we seek to present an objective and publicly accessible understanding of health needs. These needs are related to the normal functioning of species and impact the range of opportunities available throughout our lives. Drawing on Rawls\'s theory of justice as fairness, and on the extension to this theory, proposed by Daniels, we argue that the set of institutions, services, goods and resources necessary for the maintenance, reestablishment, and provision of functional equivalents to normal functioning, should be distributed in a way that respects the principle of fair equality of opportunity. Secondly, we develop an argument about the contemporary debate dedicated to the definition and defense of the fundamental principle that should mark the fair allocation of the most varied distribuenda. We argue that although justice requires a notion of equality (such as that the democratic equality we defend) rather than a threshold of sufficiency or a principle of priority, these normative criteria can aid in the formulation and evaluation of public policies and institutional recommendations. We question the attacks directed at egalitarian theories, arguing that these theories can not be reduced, nor do they necessarily require, the application of simple egalitarian distributive principles. Finally, we are dedicated to developing an argument about justice and health centred on the issues of social determinants of health and the social gradient in health. We shall argue, drawing on the empirical literature on the issue, that public health policies should be based on an ideal of democratic equality and should take the elimination of existing health inequities between social groups as a central guideline, as well as combatting present structural injustices in contemporary societies.

M.Tech (Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of procedural, distributive and interactional justice on job satisfaction among members of the South African Police Academy, Thabong. A critical function of the South African Police Service (SAPS) is to ensure that the inhabitants of South Africa are safe. Members of the SAPS need to be committed and have a high morale to ensure that the vision of the SAPS is fulfilled. This study advocates the application of the equity theory. People prefer to work in an environment that is perceived as just. Employees will experience satisfaction with their job in terms of equity when the equity theory is applied. However, inequity will lead to tension at the workplace. In order for the officers as employees of the SAPS to function effectively, it is essential for the SAPS to ensure that their employees are satisfied. In this study, a quantitative approach was applied to gain an understanding of the influence of organisational justice (OJ) dimensions (PJ, DJ, IJ) on job satisfaction (JS). This involved administering questionnaires to 234 employees who were attending management courses at the SAPS Academy, Thabong in the northern Free State province of South Africa. Two primary tests were used to assess the suitability of the data for factor analysis. These tests are the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to examine the correlations among the constructs. A means analysis was conducted to assess the perceptions of the employees in respect of PJ, DJ, IJ and JS. Multiple regression analysis was executed to examine whether the independent variables of PJ, DJ and IJ predict the dependent variable JS. The Cronbach alpha coefficient test provided an adequate indication of reliability of the instrument. Face/ content, construct and convergent validity methods were applied to establish validity of the study. A positive relationship between the OJ and JS was found in this study. The SAPS will be able to improve the JS levels of SAPS officers by making positive improvements when applying OJ to influence the various elements of JS identified in this study. This will effectively enable SAPS officers to meet the challenge of providing improved service. The proper implementation of OJ will ultimately lead to the organisations success as well as the progression of its employees. Since the SAPS depends on human resources, the organisation is required to assess the current OJ practices and create a working environment that stimulates and motivates employees so that their JS levels increase. The recommendations proposed for this study offer vital information on OJ practices that could assist the SAPS to improve the perceptions of employees. Accordingly, the application can improve employees’ low morale resulting from unfairness and injustice, thereby increasing the JS levels amongst employees. The findings of the research may generate guidelines for OJ practices. Recommendations include a systematic and transparent reward system that recognises employees’ excellent performance and rewards them accordingly. Another recommendation is the creation of a well-structured consultative forum to grant employees an opportunity to provide management with their perceptions of unfair practices. Future research should extend to other sectors within the public sector environment, as well as expanding the research to include several other JS elements.

The purpose of this study was to provide data concerning Distributive Justice system use and perceived fairness by citizens who have participated in a Distributive Justice based society over a long period of time. This data filled a hole in academic studies which had previously focused on datasets from citizens in non-Distributive Justice based societies or participants in short-term experiments. Using a questionnaire, players of the online game Final Fantasy XIV were asked a series of questions concerning their perceptions of fairness and use of varying Distributive models, as well as questions on their perceived relationships to one another and time spent within Final Fantasy XIV. There were four main results of the study. Firstly, Utilitarian and Need based distribution systems were seen as the most fair and used. Secondly, perceived relationships between participants did not majorly affect perceived fairness of Distribution systems. Thirdly, more time spent in Final Fantasy XIV did affect perceived fairness of varying types of Distribution systems. And, finally, the results indicated a Sufficiency based reasoning for using Utilitarian and Need based resource distribution to individuals until groups hit a sufficiency level, at which point the Distribution systems changed to meet new criteria.

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En effektiv klimatomställning kräver aktiv inkludering av rättvisa i forskningen och att specificera hur samhällsgrupper särskilt påverkade av klimatomställningen definierar rättvisa. Syftet med denna uppsats är att beskriva vad människor bosatta på landsbygden upplever är en rättvis klimatomställning samt att förstå vad som krävs för att åstadkomma en rättvis klimatomställning. Fokusgrupper har genomförts och analyserats utifrån olika dimensioner av rättvisa som utgör begreppet rättvis omställning; rättvis fördelning, proceduriell rättvisa, rätt till erkännande, rumslig rättvisa och rättvis bild av landsbygden. Resultatet visar att landsbygdsbor inte upplever rättvisa utifrån någon av dimensionerna och att åtgärder behöver vidtas för att de ska göra det. Vad som krävs är för att åstadkomma rättvisa i klimatomställningen är att beakta och ta hänsyn till landsbygdens skilda förhållanden, att värdera landsbygdens välmående och att prioritera utveckling av landsbygden. Resultaten bidrar också till att utveckla begreppet rättvis omställning. / An effective low-carbon transition requires an active inclusion of justice in research to specify how societal groups especially impacted by the low-carbon transition defines justice. The aim of this essay is to describe what people living in rural areas experience as a just transition and to understand what is required to achieve a just transition. Focus groups have been conducted and analysed through different dimensions of justice that make up a just transition; distributional justice, procedural justice, recognitional justice, spatial justice and a just image of the periphery. The results show that people living in rural areas does not experience justice through any of the dimensions and that action is needed for them to do so. What is required to achieve a just transition is to consider and take into account the different conditions specific to rural areas, to value the wellbeing of rural areas and to prioritize development in rural areas. The results also contribute to develop the concept just transition. / Inkluderande klimatomställning – dialoger om att leva hållbart bortom staden

As social sustainability has lacked recognition and consideration within physical planning since the establishment of the sustainability definition, this thesis seeks to investigate its role within a railway infrastructure’s physical planning process and project management. The study evaluates the specific case of the East Link, section Södertälje-Trosa, because it is a current project that has been ongoing for a long period of time. The thesis further seeks to investigate how the planning actors connected to the case study project have recognised the role of social sustainability and what influences they experience have affected the level of social sustainability within the project. The theory used to evaluate the research questions includes a definition for sustainability and presents which social sustainability aspects have been used for the investigation: distributive justice, the citizen perspective, and power. To be able to evaluate the project management of the East Link Södertälje-Trosa, theory regarding project management and communication is also presented. The case study has been focused on the analysis of publicly available documents for the project, which are also complemented by semi-structured interviews with planning actors of different sectors. The empirical analysis, where the case study results are connected to the theoretical basis, concludes that the East Link Södertälje-Trosa project has lacked both consideration and recognised ambition for social sustainability, even though the Swedish Transport Administration has expressed a future aim for the concept. The reason as to why social sustainability has lacked prioritisation is due to multiple factors; the timing of the project initiation, size of the project and project management, as well as lack of consideration and recognition for social sustainabilityaspects within the citizen perspective and the utilitarian philosophy behind the project. While the Swedish Transport Administration is largely responsible for the ambition of social sustainability within the project, the level of social sustainability is also influenced by the power of the discourse, where it has not gained enough recognition as important for physical planning and because of this, there are no legal requirements for its focus. The future of social sustainability and its recognition is further discussed in relation to the Swedish Transport Administration’s future ambition of social sustainability, the practice of social impact assessments and inclusion of social sustainability sectors within projects. Finally, a proposition is made regarding social-ecological sustainability, where social sustainability can gain equal recognition to ecological, as they are interdependent and of equal importance in physical planning.

The purpose of this thesis is to address the criticism of democracy put forward by the American philosopher Jason Brennan in his book, Against democracy (2017). Brennan questions the people´s influence on political issues based on epistemic grounds and dismisses arguments for democracy based on procedural and semiotic principles. My argument aims to defend the equal distribution of political freedom and to argue for how democracy´s procedural and semiotic value is expressed. Additionally, I address Brennan´s views on knowledge and competence from a value-theoretical perspective. My results show, among other things, that Brennan´s argumentation contains contradictions and unclear valuetheoretical reasoning. Drawing on Rawlsian principles of justice, I point out why political freedom should be considered as a primary good and therefore distributed equally. Furthermore, I present arguments for how procedural justice can be legitimized for instrumental reasons and highlight the importance of the public recognition expressed by democracy´s semiotics. / Syftet med denna uppsats är att bemöta den demokratikritik som den amerikanske filosofen Jason Brennan ger uttryck för i boken, Efter demokratin (2017). Brennan kritiserar, utifrån epistemiska bevekelsegrunder, folkets inflytande i politiska frågor samt avfärdar argument för demokrati som vilar på proceduriell och semiotisk grund. Min argumentation syftar till att försvara den jämlika distributionen av politisk frihet samt argumentera för hur demokratins proceduriella och semiotiska värde tar sig uttryck. Vidare bemöter jag Brennans syn på kunskap och kompetens med utgångspunkt i värdeteoretiska ståndpunkter. Mina resultat visar, bland annat, att Brennans argumentation rymmer motsägelser samt dunkla, värdeteoretiska resonemang. Med utgångspunkt i rawlsianska rättviseprinciper har jag pekat på varför politisk frihet bör betraktas som en primär nyttighet, och således fördelas jämlikt. Jag har vidare lagt fram argument för hur proceduriell rättvisa kan legitimeras av instrumentella skäl och också belyst vikten av det offentliga erkännande som demokratins semiotik uttrycker.

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[pt] A presente tese de doutorado realiza um estudo comparativo, no âmbito da teoria da justiça, envolvendo a teoria da igualdade complexa, formulada por Michael Walzer, autor inserido no rol dos comunitaristas, e a teoria da justiça como imparcialidade, formulada por John Rawls, autor inserido no rol dos liberais. Trata-se, portanto, de um estudo comparativo de autores baseado na categoria da justiça distributiva, conceito cuja formulação original remonta ao pensamento aristotélico. A tese - que contém elementos de filosofia moral, filosofia política e filosofia do direito - tem por objetivo verificar se a teoria da igualdade complexa, com sua metodologia particularista e seus princípios internos de distribuição, possibilita, como apregoa Michael Walzer, a crítica social ou se, de outra forma, esta crítica deve estar associada a uma moral universalista, como, por exemplo, a que nos é fornecida pelo modelo rawlsiano. / [en] The present doctorate thesis aims to make a comparative study, inthe context of the theory of justice, involving the theory of complexequality, formulated by Michael Walzer, author inserted in the communitarians list, and the theory of justice as fairness, formulated byJohn Rawls, author inserted in the liberals list. It s about, therefore, acomparative study of authors based on the category of distributive justice,whose concept was originally formulated by the aristotelic thought. Thethesis - that contains elements of moral philosophy, political philosophyand philosophy of law - aims to verify if the theory of complex equality,with its particularistic methodology and its internal principles ofdistribution, makes possible, as well as Michael Walzer proclaims, thesocial criticism or if, on the other hand, this criticism has to be associated toan universalistic moral, as, for example, that one provided by the rawlsianmodel.