Ces travaux ont visé à étudier l’impact de la disponibilité glucidique sur la performance et les adaptations de l’entraînement. L’étude n°1 a permis de caractériser la stratégie de récupération optimale entre deux entraînements chez des athlètes élites en BMX. Les résultats ont permis d’identifier la stratégie nutritionnelle comme étant la stratégie de récupération induisant la plus faible diminution de puissance lors de tests de performance. La deuxième partie a investigué l’impact de la périodisation chronique de l’apport glucidique, par la stratégie « Sleep-Low », sur la performance en endurance et la fonction immunitaire. La stratégie « Sleep-Low» consiste à réaliser des entraînements ciblés en condition de faible disponibilité en glucides, notamment une période récupération faible en glucides et un entraînement à faible intensité réalisé à jeun. Les résultats révèlent que tous les sujets de la stratégie « Sleep-Low » améliorent leur performance en endurance lors d’un 10km en course à pied ou d’un contre-la-montre de 20km. Cette amélioration de la performance est associée à une modification de la stratégie d’allure dans le cas d’un contre-la-montre vers une augmentation des niveaux de puissance développés. Les résultats ont suggéré une modification de la perception d’effort suite à l’implémentation de la stratégie. Ces résultats sont associés à une diminution de la masse grasse chez les participants. L’étude n°3 confirme que la stratégie « Sleep-Low » n’entraîne pas de dégradation de la fonction immunitaire ou de l’efficacité de sommeil. Ces travaux vont dans le sens d’une manipulation de la disponibilité en glucides en fonction de l’objectif des périodes d’entraînement / The aim of the present work is to study the impact of the availability of carbohydrates on performance and on the development of training adaptations. The first section of this thesis aimed at defining the optimal recovery strategies between training sessions for elite BMX pilots. The results revealed that the nutritional strategy is one of the most efficient recovery strategies leading to a lesser decrease in power output. The second section of this thesis investigated the impact of a chronic periodization of carbohydrate intake, through the “Sleep-Low” strategy, on endurance performance and immune function. The “Sleep-Low” strategy consists in specific training sessions performed under low carbohydrate availability, notably during recovery period and low intensity prolonged sessions. All subjects training under the “Sleep-Low” strategy improved their performance on a 10km running trial and on a 20km cycling time trial. This improved performance is associated with a modification of pacing strategy during the 20km cycling time trial toward higher power output. The results suggested a modification of perception of effort after training under the “Sleep-Low” strategy: despite an improvement of performance, participants did not perceive the effort as more difficult. These results are associated to a decrease in fat mass. The study #3 confirmed that the periodization of carbohydrate intake did not impair immune function or sleep efficacy. All the results of the four studies bring new elements in the evolution of carbohydrate recommendations. These works are in the line of a manipulation of carbohydrate availability according to the work required

ix Flexibility has traditionally been considered an important component of human physical fitness but this conjecture lacks supporting empirical evidence. While there is extensive published research examining the relative importance of flexibility and the impact of various methods of stretching on levels of flexibility, performance and injury risk, the quality of studies has varied considerably, reliability and validity of methodology has not always been proven, and rationale has at times been questionable. Additionally, much literature has focused on static flexibility which is not necessarily related to properties of the musculotendinous unit and thus dynamic flexibility. This thesis was designed to fill gaps in the existing literature by using accepted methods to establish relative and absolute reliability of hamstring flexibility tests, consider the comparability of static and dynamic components of the global concept of flexibility and explore how dynamic flexibility and performance are influenced by fatiguing exercise and subsequent static stretching. The first aim was realised by a repeated measures study designed to establish the intraday and interday, intrarater reliability and measurement error of static and dynamic measures of hamstring flexibility. Significant relative reliability for measures of static and dynamic hamstring flexibility was demonstrated via intraclass correlation coefficient (3,1) but limits of agreement analysis indicated there was a degree of absolute measurement error that must be interpreted in relation to analytical goals. The second aim required evaluation of relationships shared by static and dynamic measures of hamstring flexibility. Significant relationships between the different static flexibility tests were established but the extent of unexplained variance indicated that only measurements from the same tests should be directly compared to each other. Relationships between different measures of dynamic flexibility and static flexibility varied from non-significant to moderately strong, suggesting that measures of static and dynamic flexibility are not identical and results should not be interchanged between the two types of tests. Due to a lack of explanatory empirical evidence, the final chapter aimed via a prospective randomised repeated measures study to investigate the impact of fatigue and post-exercise static stretching on measures of dynamic flexibility and performance. Fatigue resulted in no significant changes to passive or active dynamic flexibility measures but a significant worsening of static flexibility levels and perceived stiffness. Post-exercise stretch resulted in significantly increased passive and active energy absorption immediately and 18 hours post-exercise and in significantly reduced joint position sense immediately post-exercise. Effect sizes were small so the clinical meaningfulness of performing post-exercise static stretching is questionable, particularly if performed in place of other, potentially more beneficial practices. / Thesis (DPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Biokinetics, Sport and Leisure Sciences / unrestricted

Title: Body composition and morphological asymmetries in football players and their possible residues in the phase of return after injury Aim: The main goal of the work was to identify changes in body composition and the occurrence of morphological asymmetries and the length of the residual period after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in elite footballers. Methods: The research group consisted of two elite adult football players. The basic characteristics are listed in Table 2. The players were active in the highest national competitions and their training volume corresponds to 15-23 hours per week. The selection of players was intentional. Prior to the measurement, we determined the current standing body height with an accuracy of 1 mm using a stadiometer (SECA 242, Hamburg, Germany) and the body weight with an accuracy of 1 g using a digital scale (SECA 769, Hamburg, Germany). We used a multifrequency bioimpedance analyser (Tanita MC-980MA, Tanita Corporation, Japan) to determine body composition. The actual measurement lasted approximately 120 s, the actual body weight to recalculate indirectly measurable parameters was recorded by the analyser itself with an accuracy of 1 g. We found out: the current body composition and its changes in the monitored probands. We monitored the change in...

Syftet med studien var att utifrån Gross (2007) teori undersöka känsloregleringsstrategier hos elitidrottare. Studiens frågeställning var: Vilka känslor upplever elitidrottaren timmen innan en viktig tävling och hur hanterar idrottaren de uppkomna känslorna? Studien omfattade nio elitidrottare inom individuella idrotter. Datainsamlingen genomfördes med semistrukturerade intervjuer som transkriberades och analyserades via en innehållsanalys. Analysen resulterade i sex teman med respektive två till tre subteman. De sex huvudteman var distraktion, självprat/peptalk, social strategi, struktur, uppmärksamhetsfokus och visualisering. Elitidrottarna sa samstämmigt att de upplevde känslor timmen före start i en viktig tävling och de gav uttryck för att de använde sig av känsloreglerande strategier. Dessa strategier användes ofta omedvetet. Att medvetandegöra känsloreglerande strategier kan bidra till att skapa möjligheter till en bättre tävlingsprestation. / The purpose of the study was, based on Gross’ (2007) theory, to investigate elite athletes’ emotion regulating strategies. The issue posed in the Study was the following: What feelings does an elite athlete experience in the hour before an important competition and how does the athlete handle those feelings? The study pertained to nine elite athletes in individual athletic disciplines. The compilation of data was performed through semi-structured interviews which were transcribed and analysed using a content analysis. The analysis resulted in six categories with 2-3 sub-categories. The six main categories were distraction, self-talk/pep-talk, social strategy, structure, attention focus and visualisation. The elite athletes conclusively stated that they did experience feelings during the hour just before an important competition and they gave the impression that they used emotion regulating strategies. These strategies were often used sub- consciously. Raising awareness of emotion regulating strategies can contribute to creating possibilities for enhanced performance.

Forskning tyder på att lagidrotten kan utgöra en hälsofrämjande arena som uppfyller en viktig samhällsfunktion. Trots detta väljer många att lämna idrottsrörelsen i ung ålder medan elitlagidrottare utgör en grupp som valt att fortsätta satsningen vidare. Syftet med studien var att undersöka elitidrottares upplevelse av lagidrottens hälsofrämjande egenskaper och vilka faktorer som bidrar med motivation till fortsatt idrottande. Metoden var av kvalitativ karaktär och datainsamlingen bestod av intervjuer i fokusgrupp. Tjugo deltagare rekryterades från fyra olika idrottsföreningar och idrottsgrenar. Datamaterialet analyserades med hjälp av en manifest innehållsanalys där fyra underkategorier “Någonting större”, “Kropp och knopp”, “Professionella förutsättningar” och “Spelets drivkraft” skapade huvudtemat “Elitlagidrott- att tillsammans drivas av något hälsofrämjande”. Resultatet visar att elitlagidrotten kan bidra med hälsofrämjande egenskaper som också tillsammans med föreningens arbete och tävlingsmomenten skapar förutsättningar för motivation till fortsatt idrottande. Slutsatsen är att de hälsofrämjande egenskaperna inom elitlagidrott kan utgöra någonting större än bara idrott och främjar både psykisk och fysisk hälsa som tillsammans med idrottsföreningens arbete samt tävlingsmomentet utgör motivationsfaktorer till det fortsatta idrottandet. / Research suggests that team sports can constitute an arena for health promotion and encompass an important societal function. Despite this, many choose to leave the team sport context at a young age, whereas elite athletes form a group that has chosen to continue participating. The purpose of this study was to investigate elite athletes’ experiences of the team sport’s health promotion characteristics and which factors can contribute to the motivation to continue with sports participation. The research method was of a qualitative nature and the data collection consisted of interviews with focus groups. Twenty participants were recruited from four different sporting clubs, each in a different field of sport respectively. The data was analyzed using a manifest content analysis method, where four categories - “Something bigger’’, “Body and mind’’, “Professional conditions’’ and “The motivation of the game” - created the main theme “Elite team sport - to be driven together by something health promotive’’. The result shows that elite team sports can contribute with health promotive qualities, that together with the work of the sports clubs and the element of competition creates motivation for continuing sports participation. The conclusion is that health promotive qualities in elite team sports can constitute something bigger than just the sport itself and promote both mental and physical health. This effect, together with assistance from the sports club, as well as the element of the competition, constitute motivational factors for continued sports participation.

Individuell elitidrott kan vara ensamt och motivationen behöver vara stor under en lång period för att prestera på topp och bibehålla träningsmängden. Det har visat sig att tränare är en av de viktigaste influenserna för idrottares motivation. Därmed är syftet med studien att pröva självbestämmandeteorin för att öka förståelsen om hur motivation uppstod under relationer mellan elitidrottare och respektive tränare. Det teoretiska ramverket inkluderar tre psykologiska behov i form av autonomi, kompetens och samhörighet. Behoven behövs för att tillfredsställa inre motivation och välbefinnande hos idrottarna. Det finns även många yttre faktorer som motiverar dem, därför har även yttre regleringar inkluderats. Studien är retrospektiv och totalt genomfördes sex semistrukturerade intervjuer med elitidrottare och tre med deras primära tränare i Sverige. Insamlad empiri bearbetades och analyserades genom en kvalitativ tematisk analys. Ur analysen utvecklades underteman baserat på de tre psykologiska behoven. I resultatet redovisas dessa baserat på relevans utifrån båda perspektiven och exemplifieras av: kommunikation, utveckling, involvering, individanpassning och situationsanpassat ledarskap, uppmärksammas, ge och få respekt och trygghet. Resultatet indikerar på många likheter, få skillnader och att relationerna var uppskattade. Det framkom även att elitidrottarna motiverades av alla tre psykologiska behov och att det existerade en hierarki mellan dem. Autonomi och kompetens var de starkaste behoven och influerade inre motivation och självbestämd yttre motivation mest. Samhörighet var ett mer distalt behov, som ändå visade sig vara viktigt för elitidrottarna. Slutsatsen är att självbestämmandeteorin ökade förståelsen om att regleringsprocesserna bestående av identifierad och integrerad reglering. Dessa var betydelsefulla för elitidrottarnas internalisering av inre- och självbestämd yttre motivation. Prövningen av teorin ledde även till slutsatsen att den kan behövas kompletteras med fler behov eller modeller för att vara ändamålsenlig i en kontext med elitidrottare. / Individual elite sports can be lonely, and motivation needs to be great for a long period of time in order to maintain the performance level. Coaches are one of the most important influences of athletes’ motivation. Therefore, the aim of this study is to test the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to increase understanding of how motivation arose during relationships between elite athletes and their primary coaches. A comparative design was used, and empirical data based on semi-structured interviews was analyzed using a qualitative thematic analysis. The result presents many similarities and few differences based on the athletes’ and coaches’ perspective. Seven themes were developed based on the three psychological needs of SDT: communication, development, involvement, individualized and situational leadership, attention, give and receive respect and feeling secure. Conclusion: A hierarchy was found between the psychological needs and internalizing identified and integrated regulations was important to elite athletes intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation.

Bakgrund: Psykisk hälsa är ett tillstånd av välbefinnande där individen kan klara av vanliga påfrestningar, kan arbeta produktivt och bidra till samhället. Inom elitidrotten ställs det höga krav på individen vilket genererar stora fysiska och psykiska påfrestningar för individen. Det gör elitidrottare till en utsatt grupp för psykisk ohälsa och risktagande beteenden. Syfte: Syftet var att beskriva erfarenheter av psykisk ohälsa hos personer som utövar elitidrott. Metod: En litteraturöversikt har genomförts. Artiklarna hämtades från Cinahl och PsycInfo. Litteraturöversikten är baserad på kvalitativa och kvantitativa artiklar. Både systematiska och osystematiska sökningar genomfördes vilket resulterade i tolv artiklar. Resultat: Erfarenheterna kring psykisk ohälsa hos elitidrottarna sammanfattades i tre teman: att leva upp till egna och andras förväntningar, bristande kunskap och stöd samt konsekvenser av psykisk ohälsa. Temat egna och andras förväntningar består av två subteman: att förändra sin identitet och att utsättas för stigmatisering. Konklusion: Den psykiska ohälsan inom elitidrotten ökar liksom den gör hos allmänheten i övrigt. Stigmatiseringen och bristen på kunskap kring psykisk ohälsa inom elitidrotten har visat sig vara stor. Det bör därför läggas mer resurser på utveckling och förbättring genom utbildning för att kunna ge bättre stöd till personer som drabbas av psykisk ohälsa inom elitidrotten. / Background: Mental health is a state of well-being where the individual can cope with common stress, be able to work productively and to contribute to society. In the elite sport, there are high demands on the individual, which generates a great physical and mental stress in the individual. It makes elite athletes a vulnerable group for mental ill health and risk-taking behaviors. Aim: The aim was to describe experiences of mental illness among people practicing elite sports. Method: A literature review was conducted. The articles were retrieved from the databases Cinahl and PsycInfo. The literature review was based on qualitative and quantitative articles. Both systematic and unsystematic searches were conducted, resulting in twelve articles. Results: The experiences of mental illness among the elite athletes were summarized in three themes: Living up to one's own and others' expectations, lack of knowledge and support, and consequences of mental illness. The theme, Living up to one's own and others' expectations consists of two sub-themes: to change ones identity and to be subjected to stigmatization. Conclusion: The mental illness in the elite sport increases as well as it does within the general population. The stigmatization as well as the lack of knowledge about mental illness within the elite sport have proved to be great. Therefore, it should be added more resources on education in order to be able to provide better support to people who suffer from mental illness in elite sports.

Introduction: Recent studies indicate high prevalences of disordered eating or eating disorders in adult athletes and a worrying increase in adolescent athletes. Although several risk factors for developing eating disorders have been identified for adult athletes (e.g., personality factors, sport-related pressure), research on risk factors in adolescent athletes is scarce. Methods: This study investigates the prevalence of disordered eating and eating disorder symptoms and its association with personality- and sport-related risk factors in a sample of 439 elite athletes aged 13–18 years. Self-regulatory personality factors, sports and social pressure, as well as sports biographical data, were investigated in relation to different weight control methods and the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire measuring disordered eating and eating disorder symptoms. Results: Results indicate a prevalence rate of clinically significant eating pathology of 5.5% for the total sample, in which female athletes aged 15–18 years show the highest rate (9.6%). The structural equation model indicates a predominant association of sports and social pressure and personality factors with eating disorder symptoms. Conclusion: Being in the age range 15–18 years, being female, and being an athlete in a high-risk sport (e.g., aesthetics, weight class, or endurance sports) were identified as risk factors as well as athletes’ mental association with weight loss and success, and athletes’ perceived social pressure on eating and on body shape. Disordered eating and eating disorders are not only of concern for adults but also for young elite athletes and recommendations for adolescent elite athletes, coaches, and parents are given.

No description available.

Vinna eller försvinna. Så lyder talesättet och så lyder den stora grundmentaliteten när det kommer till sport. När du kliver ut på planen eller åker ut på isen gäller det att prestera. Men den prestation som dagens elitidrottare står för består av långt mycket mer än vad man vid första anblick kan tro. Sportens värld har vuxit till att bli en av världens största industrier och det tillsammans med ett förändrat samhällsklimat och medielandskap ställer allt större krav på elitidrottarna att prestera även inom utomsportsliga områden. Det gäller allt från att hantera publikförväntningar till att slå sig fram på en marknad där konkurrensen ökar och ställer högre krav på att profilera sig. I denna studie har elitidrottares yrkesroll studerats utifrån ett marknadsperspektiv med syfte att undersöka yrkesutövandets utomsportsliga delar och dess roll för elitidrottaren. Underliggande faktorer som studeras är förhållandet mellan sport och politik genom elitidrottares engagemang i samhällsfrågor men också genom upplevda publikförväntningar och ett förändrat medielandskap. Studien syftar även till att undersöka varumärkesbyggandets roll inom olika nivåer av sportens värld. De teoretiska utgångspunkter vi har haft är forskning kring varumärkesbyggande, sportjournalistik, impression management, Sports Social Responsibility, SSR, och publikförväntningar. I studien har vi genomfört semistrukturerade intervjuer med nio manliga elitidrottare som är aktiva i de fyra högsta ligorna inom fotboll och ishockey i Sverige. De slutsatser som kan urskiljas från vår analys är att elitidrottarna anser att det är en hel del som ingår i deras yrke utöver sportslig prestation. De teman vi har tagit fram speglar de utomsportsliga företeelser som elitidrottare måste hantera som en del av sitt yrkesutövande. Dessa är: medierelationer, medieträning, publikförväntningar, varumärkesbyggande och samhällsengagemang. På ett övergripande plan handlar det om att hantera och förvalta relationer med olika intressentgrupper. Våra informanter ser varumärkesbyggande i allmänhet och personligt varumärkesbyggande i synnerhet som en viktig del av det utomsportsliga yrkesutövandet. De ser tendenser av en individualisering inom lagidrotten, där det personliga varumärket kommer att spela en allt större roll. Informanterna ser att idrottares engagemang i samhället är ett allt mer vanligt förekommande fenomen. De ser främst att man som elitidrottare har en stor plattform som man kan utnyttja för att göra skillnad i samhället men de ser även att socialt ansvar och samhällsengagemang kan få varumärkesbyggande effekter. De ser tendenser av att de utomsportsliga delarna av yrket kommer att spela allt större roll i framtiden och att området kommer att professionaliseras. / All or nothing. This is the saying and this is also the general mentality within sports. When you step out on the football field or go out on the hockey rink it’s all about performance. But the performance that today’s elite athletes stand for consists of far much more than you might think at first glance. The world of sports has grown to become one of the world's largest industries and this, together with a changing social climate and media landscape, creates increasing demands on elite athletes to perform in non-sporting areas as well. This applies to everything from managing audience expectations to establishing oneself in a market where competition is increasing and there are increasing demands on self profiling. In this study, the professional role of elite athletes has been studied from a market perspective with the aim of examining the non-sporting parts of professional practice and its role for the elite athlete. Underlying factors that are studied are the relationship between sports and politics through elite athletes' involvement in societal issues but also through perceived audience expectations and a changed media landscape. The study also aims to examine the role of brand building within different levels of the world of sport. The theoretical starting points we have had are research on brand building, sports journalism, impression management, SSR and audience expectations. In our study, we conducted semi-structured interviews with nine male elite athletes who are active in the four highest leagues in football and ice hockey in Sweden. The conclusions that can be distinguished from our analysis are that the elite athletes believe that there are a lot of different parts of their profession in addition to sporting performance. The themes we have read out reflects the non-sporting areas that elite athletes must deal with as part of their professional practice. These are: media relations, media training, audience expectations, brand building and advocacy. On an overall level, it is all about managing relationships with different stakeholder and shareholder groups. Our informants see branding in general and personal branding in particular as an important part of the non-sporting parts of the profession. They see tendencies of an individualization in team sports, where the personal brand will play an increasing role. The informants see that athletes' involvement in society as an increasingly common phenomenon. They mainly see that as an elite athlete you have a large platform that you can use to make a difference in society, but they also see that social responsibility and advocacy can have brand-building effects. They see tendencies that the non- sporting parts of the profession will play an increasing role in the future and that the area will be professionalized.