In dieser Projektarbeit geht es um die Abschätzung von Massen der Hauptbaugruppen großer ziviler Verkehrsflugzeuge (MTOM > 40 t), sowie um die Abschätzung der Betriebsleermasse. Die Projektarbeit analysiert die 2013 im Luftfahrttechnischen Handbuch (LTH) erschienene Massenschätzmethode MA 401 12-01 B von F. Dorbarth und vergleicht diese Methode mit anderen früher veröffentlichten Methoden, die von Fernandes da Moura bereits 2001 analysiert wurden. Für die Analyse werden ausgewählte Flugzeugmuster (A320-200, A330-200, A340-300 und B737-200) und deren tatsächliche Massen der Hauptbaugruppen sowie Betriebsleermassen genutzt. Die Abweichungen zwischen den berechneten und den tatsächlichen Massen werden für jede Methode in Diagrammen veranschaulicht. Es zeigt sich dabei, dass die Massenschätzmethode aus dem Luftfahrttechnischen Handbuch nur geringe Abweichungen im Vergleich zu den tatsächlichen Massen aufweist. Damit werden die eigenen Angaben zur Genauigkeit der LTH-Methode bestätigt. Die Abweichungen sind geringer als bei älteren und generelleren Methoden wie sie von Fernandes da Moura untersucht wurden. Dies entspricht der Erwartung, dass eine neuere Methode, die auf Flugzeuge einer bestimmten Art beschränkt ist, auch genauere Ergebnisse liefert. Insgesamt hat sich die LTH-Methode als übersichtliche und hinreichend genaue Methode zur Massenabschätzung im frühen Flugzeugentwurf erwiesen. Die Abweichungen lagen in der Regel unter 5 % und nur in Ausnahmefällen wurde eine Abweichung von 10 % überschritten.

One of the challenges for Airbus preparing a new freighter development process was the design of a solid freighter barrier, which separates the courier area from the cargo compartment. The major task of such a barrier is to protect the passengers against all risks caused due to cargo impact by a justifiable design. These risks may result from all kind of survivable incident and accident scenarios. Real aircraft crashes were analyzed to get away from a static book-case and come to a more realistic dynamic crash scenario. A reduced-order simulation model was built up to investigate and simulate the dynamic effects during crash. The simulation model considers the highly nonlinear stiffness and damping characteristics of all critical cargo types and also includes their energy absorption potentials. A series of full scale container crash tests have been performed at accredited car crash facilities. The test campaigns were complemented by numerous component tests to study also general crash principles. The critical simulation parameters were identified and implemented into the simulation model. The subsequent validation process showed a close agreement between simulation and test. The simulation environment has turned out to be a reliable basis to simulate all critical barrier loads with respect to the specific aircraft loading distributions. The essence of this investigation is an adequate understanding of the real crash effects. The proposed dynamic crash approach is more realistic than the static condition and results in an optimized safety barrier wall concept. This dynamic approach provides equivalent safety compared to the existing devices and is accepted by FAA and EASA.:Contents 1 Scope of the Work 1 1.1 State-of-the-Art Barrier Design 1 1.2 General Crash Justification Requirement 2 1.3 Barrier Protection Criterion 3 1.4 Proposed Dynamic Approach for an Optimized Safety Barrier Design 4 2 Simulation 6 2.1 About this Chapter 6 2.2 Simulation environment Matlab/Simulink 7 2.3 Simulation Model 7 2.4 Differential Equation 11 2.5 Stiffness and Damping 14 2.6 Crash Pulses 17 2.7 Dynamic Latch Behavior 21 2.8 Model Implementation 21 2.8.1 Derivation of the Equation Set Up for One Cargo Unit 22 2.9 Simulation Environment 25 3 Full Scale ULD Crash Tests 33 3.1 About this Chapter 33 3.2 Objectives 33 3.3 Test Setup 34 3.3.1 Cargo Configuration 34 3.3.2 Test Configuration 38 3.3.3 Test Equipment 39 4 Analysis of ULD Crash Tests 41 4.1 Test Results 41 4.1.1 Test with frangible Cargo 41 4.1.2 Test with rigid Cargo 45 4.2 Measurement Quality 47 4.3 Load Principles 50 4.4 Load Propagation on Barrier 52 5 Parameter Identification and Results 53 5.1 About this Chapter 53 5.2 Identification Process 53 5.3 Stiffness and Damping Identification 56 5.3.1 Identification of first ULD characteristic 57 5.3.2 Identification of second and aft ULDs 58 5.3.3 Identified Load-De ection Characteristics 59 5.4 Model Validation 60 6 Barrier Protection against Rigid Cargo Impact 63 6.1 About this Chapter 63 6.2 Excitation Pulse 64 6.3 State-of-the-Art Consideration 65 VIII CONTENTS 6.4 Simulation Model based on Energy Method 67 6.5 Reduced Crushable Cargo owing to Rigid Cargo Tests 70 7 Full Scale Latch Rupture Test 74 7.1 About this Chapter 74 7.2 Objectives 75 7.3 Test Setup 76 7.3.1 Tested Cargo 78 7.3.2 Test Measurement 80 8 Analysis of Latch Rupture Test 82 8.1 About this Chapter 82 8.2 Results and Physical Effects 83 8.2.1 Energy Flow Consideration 83 8.2.2 Pulse Consideration 86 8.2.3 Load and Velocity Consideration 86 8.2.4 Summary 91 9 Consolidation of the Two Crash Requirements 92 9.1 Integration of Frangible and Rigid Simulation Model 92 9.2 Linked Simulation Results 92 9.3 Dynamic Impact Loads on Safety Barrier Wall 93 9.4 Minimal Barrier Loads for Safety Barrier Wall Protection 96 9.5 Safety Barrier Wall Design Loads 99 10 Summary and Outlook 101

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde der Einfluss von passiven und elastischen Rückstromklappen, die auch als Flaps bezeichnet werden, auf einen Tragflügel mit NACA0020 Profil untersucht. Mithilfe einer Kraftwaage erfolgte zunächst die Erfassung der Auswirkungen auf das aerodynamische Verhalten des Tragflügels vor und nach der Strömungsablösung. Für ein detailliertes Verständnis wurde zusätzlich die Umströmung mit der Rauchdrahttechnik visualisiert und die Flapkinematik mit der Stereo Vision Technik aufgenommen. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Vorderkantenflaps mit der geringsten Biegesteifigkeit die Gleitzahl des Tragflügels vor allem in abgelöster Strömung erhöhen. Die festgestellte Auftriebssteigerung resultiert aus der langsamen Aufstellbewegung und beschleunigten Anlegebewegung der Flaps, die eine einhergehende Reduzierung der turbulenten Ablösung verursachen. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit liefern zahlreiche Erkenntnisse, die eine Übertragung des festgestellten Effekts auf andere technische Anwendungen erleichtern.:Abbildungsverzeichnis....................................................................... VII Tabellenverzeichnis............................................................................ XII Symbol- & Abkürzungsverzeichnis..................................................XVI 1 Einleitung......................................................................................... 1 2 Stand der Forschung........................................................................ 4 2.1 Wesentliche Aspekte von Profilumströmungen ................................. 4 2.2 Zusammenfassung essenzieller Aspekte von Tragflügeln mit Flaps ......7 3 Numerische Untersuchung der Profilumströmung....................... 13 3.1 Numerische Modell ......................................................................13 3.1.1 Grundgleichungen und Turbulenzmodell ..............................13 3.1.2 Randbedingungen und Diskretisierungsschema .....................16 3.2 Ergebnisse für das NACA0018 Profil .............................................18 3.3 Ergebnisse für das NACA0020 Profil .............................................19 3.4 Schlussfolgerung aus den Simulationen ..........................................22 4 Kraftmessungen an einem NACA0020 Tragflügel ....................... 23 4.1 Versuchsvorbereitung ...................................................................23 4.1.1 Windkanal ........................................................................23 4.1.2 Tragflügel und Funktionsweise der Kraftwaage .....................25 4.2 Messunsicherheit und Validierung .................................................27 4.3 Position der Flaps auf dem Tragflügel............................................ 31 4.3.1 Flapgeometrie und Flappositionen....................................... 31 4.3.2 Polardiagramme für variierende Flapposition........................34 4.4 Faserverstärkte Silikonflaps...........................................................36 4.4.1 Verwendeten Materialien ....................................................36 4.4.2 Polardiagramm für faserverstärkte Silikonflaps .....................38 4.5 Flapgeometrie .............................................................................40 4.5.1 Untersuchte Flapformen .....................................................40 4.5.2 Polardiagramm der untersuchten Flapformen ....................... 41 4.6 Wirkung der Flaps bei instationären Anströmung...........................43 4.6.1 Versuchsdurchführung ........................................................43 4.6.2 Ergebnisse der instationären Untersuchung...........................45 4.7 Schlussfolgerung der Auftriebs- und Widerstandsuntersuchungen .....47 5 Strömungsvisualisierung mithilfe der Rauchdrahttechnik........... 49 5.1 Experimenteller Aufbau ...............................................................49 5.2 Vorgehensweise bei der Auswertung...............................................50 5.3 Ergebnisse der Visualisierung........................................................ 51 6 Flapkantenkinematik..................................................................... 58 6.1 Versuchsaufbau und Versuchsdurchführung ....................................58 6.2 Bildauswertung ........................................................................... 61 6.3 Ergebnisse ..................................................................................62 6.3.1 VK Konfiguration - ohne Faserverstärkung...........................62 6.3.2 Bewegungsausführung des Vorderkantenflaps der VK-HK Konfiguration - ohne Faserverstärkung.......................................69 6.3.3 Bewegungsausführung des Vorderkantenflaps der VK-HK Konfiguration - mit Faserverstärkung ........................................75 6.3.4 Auswertung und Interpretation ...........................................82 7 Zusammenfassung.......................................................................... 87 8 Ausblick.......................................................................................... 89 Anhang ................................................................................................ 97 A Anhang 1....................................................................................97 B Anhang 2....................................................................................98 C Anhang 3....................................................................................99 / In the following study the effects of elastic and passive flaps were investigated on an airfoil with a NACA0020 profile. At first the aerodynamic performance of different configurations was measured with a force balance. In order to detect its effects before and after stall the angle of attack was varied during the experiments. For the configurations with increased aerodynamic performance additional experiments were carried out. The smoke wire visualization and stereo vision technique allowed a detailled insight in the flow around the NACA0020 profile and the flap movement. The results show that elastic flaps at the leading and trailing edge of the airfoil improve notably the airfoil performance in deep stall. Furthermore, the highest increase of the lift-to-drag ratio was achieved for the configuration with lowest bending stiffness. It was observed that the highest reduction of the turbulent separation region is caused by the flap movement. The increase of lift-to-drag ratio results from a slow upward and a fast downward motion of the elastic flap. The study delivers helpful information for transfer of the observed effect to other technical applications.:Abbildungsverzeichnis....................................................................... VII Tabellenverzeichnis............................................................................ XII Symbol- & Abkürzungsverzeichnis..................................................XVI 1 Einleitung......................................................................................... 1 2 Stand der Forschung........................................................................ 4 2.1 Wesentliche Aspekte von Profilumströmungen ................................. 4 2.2 Zusammenfassung essenzieller Aspekte von Tragflügeln mit Flaps ......7 3 Numerische Untersuchung der Profilumströmung....................... 13 3.1 Numerische Modell ......................................................................13 3.1.1 Grundgleichungen und Turbulenzmodell ..............................13 3.1.2 Randbedingungen und Diskretisierungsschema .....................16 3.2 Ergebnisse für das NACA0018 Profil .............................................18 3.3 Ergebnisse für das NACA0020 Profil .............................................19 3.4 Schlussfolgerung aus den Simulationen ..........................................22 4 Kraftmessungen an einem NACA0020 Tragflügel ....................... 23 4.1 Versuchsvorbereitung ...................................................................23 4.1.1 Windkanal ........................................................................23 4.1.2 Tragflügel und Funktionsweise der Kraftwaage .....................25 4.2 Messunsicherheit und Validierung .................................................27 4.3 Position der Flaps auf dem Tragflügel............................................ 31 4.3.1 Flapgeometrie und Flappositionen....................................... 31 4.3.2 Polardiagramme für variierende Flapposition........................34 4.4 Faserverstärkte Silikonflaps...........................................................36 4.4.1 Verwendeten Materialien ....................................................36 4.4.2 Polardiagramm für faserverstärkte Silikonflaps .....................38 4.5 Flapgeometrie .............................................................................40 4.5.1 Untersuchte Flapformen .....................................................40 4.5.2 Polardiagramm der untersuchten Flapformen ....................... 41 4.6 Wirkung der Flaps bei instationären Anströmung...........................43 4.6.1 Versuchsdurchführung ........................................................43 4.6.2 Ergebnisse der instationären Untersuchung...........................45 4.7 Schlussfolgerung der Auftriebs- und Widerstandsuntersuchungen .....47 5 Strömungsvisualisierung mithilfe der Rauchdrahttechnik........... 49 5.1 Experimenteller Aufbau ...............................................................49 5.2 Vorgehensweise bei der Auswertung...............................................50 5.3 Ergebnisse der Visualisierung........................................................ 51 6 Flapkantenkinematik..................................................................... 58 6.1 Versuchsaufbau und Versuchsdurchführung ....................................58 6.2 Bildauswertung ........................................................................... 61 6.3 Ergebnisse ..................................................................................62 6.3.1 VK Konfiguration - ohne Faserverstärkung...........................62 6.3.2 Bewegungsausführung des Vorderkantenflaps der VK-HK Konfiguration - ohne Faserverstärkung.......................................69 6.3.3 Bewegungsausführung des Vorderkantenflaps der VK-HK Konfiguration - mit Faserverstärkung ........................................75 6.3.4 Auswertung und Interpretation ...........................................82 7 Zusammenfassung.......................................................................... 87 8 Ausblick.......................................................................................... 89 Anhang ................................................................................................ 97 A Anhang 1....................................................................................97 B Anhang 2....................................................................................98 C Anhang 3....................................................................................99

Standardized, collaborative decision-making processes have already been implemented at some network-relevant airports, and these can be further enhanced through data-driven approaches (e.g., data analytics, predictions). New cost-effective implementations will also enable the appropriate integration of small and medium-sized airports into the aviation network. The required data can increasingly be gathered and processed by the airports themselves. For example, Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) messages are sent by arriving and departing aircraft and enable a data-driven analysis of aircraft movements, taking into account local constraints (e.g., weather or capacity). Analytical and model-based approaches that leverage these data also offer deeper insights into the complex and interdependent airport operations. This includes systematic monitoring of relevant operational milestones as well as a corresponding predictive analysis to estimate future system states. In fact, local ADS-B receivers can be purchased, installed, and maintained at low cost, providing both very good coverage of the airport apron operations (runway, taxi system, parking positions) and communication of current airport performance to the network management. To prevent every small and medium-sized airport from having to develop its own monitoring system, we present a basic concept with our approach. We demonstrate that appropriate processing of ADS-B messages leads to improved situational awareness. Our concept is aligned with the operational milestones of Eurocontrol’s Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) framework. Therefore, we analyze the A-CDM airport London–Gatwick Airport as it allows us to validate our concept against the data from the A-CDM implementation at a later stage. Finally, with our research, we also make a decisive contribution to the open-data and scientific community.

Purpose - Find optimal flight and design parameters for three objectives: minimum fuel consumption, Direct Operating Costs (DOC), and environmental impact of a passenger jet aircraft. --- Approach - Combining multiple models (this includes aerodynamics, specific fuel consumption, DOC, and equivalent CO2 mass) into one generic model. In this combined model, each objective's importance is determined by a weighting factor. Additionally, the possibility of further optimizing this model by altering an aircraft's wing loading is analyzed. --- Research limitations - Most models use estimating equations based on first principles and statistical data. --- Practical implications - The optimal cruise altitude and speed for a specific objective can be approximated for any passenger jet aircraft. --- Social implications - By using a simple approach, the discussion of optimizing aircraft opens up to a level where everyone can participate. --- Value - To find a general answer on how to optimize aviation, operational and design-wise, by using a simple approach.

This thesis explains how the classified design parameters of existing passenger jets can be determined. The classified design parameters are; the maximum lift coefficient for landing and take-off, the maximum aerodynamic efficiency and the specific fuel consumption. The entire concept is based on the preliminary sizing of jet powered civil aeroplanes. This preliminary sizing is explained in detail because it is the foundation of the final result. The preliminary sizing is combined using reverse engineering which is not a strict method. Therefore, only the basics are explained. By applying reverse engineering on the preliminary sizing and aiming for the classified design parameters as output, formulas are derived to calculate the maximum lift coefficients, the maximum aerodynamic efficiency and the specific fuel consumption. The goal is to calculate these parameters, using only aircraft specifications that are made public by the manufacturer. The calculations are complex with mutual relations, iterative processes and optimizations. Therefore, it is interesting to integrate everything in a tool. The tool is built in Microsoft Excel and explained in detail adding operating instructions. The program is executed for miscellaneous aeroplanes, supported with the necessary comments. Investigated aeroplanes are: Caravelle 10B (Sud-Aviation), Boeing 707-320C, BAe 146-200 (British Aerospance), A320-200 (Airbus), "The Rebel" (based on A320), Boeing SUGAR High, Boeing 747-400, Blended Wing Body VELA 2 (VELA) and Dassault Falcon 8X.

Purpose - This thesis presents a comparison of aircraft design concepts to identify the superior propulsion system model among turbo-hydraulic, turbo-electric and classic jet propulsion with respect to Direct Operating Costs (DOC), environmental impact and fuel burn. --- Approach - A simple aircraft model was designed based on the Top-Level Aircraft Requirements of the Airbus A320 passenger aircraft, and novel engine concepts were integrated to establish new models. Numerous types of propulsion system configurations were created by varying the type of gas turbine engine and number of propulsors. --- Findings - After an elaborate comparison of the aforementioned concepts, the all turbo-hydraulic propulsion system is found to be superior to the all turbo-electric propulsion system. A new propulsion system concept was developed by combining the thrust of a turbofan engine and utilizing the power produced by the turbo-hydraulic propulsion system that is delivered via propellers. The new partial turbo-hydraulic propulsion concept in which 20% of the total cruise power is coming from the (hydraulic driven) propellers is even more efficient than an all turbo-hydraulic concept in terms of DOC, environmental impact and fuel burn. --- Research Limitations - The aircraft were modelled with a spreadsheet based on handbook methods and relevant statistics. The investigation was done only for one type of reference aircraft and one route. A detailed analysis with a greater number of reference aircraft and types of routes could lead to other results. --- Practical Implications - With the provided spreadsheet, the DOC and environmental impact can be approximated for any commercial reference aircraft combined with the aforementioned propulsion system concepts. --- Social Implications - Based on the results of this thesis, the public will be able to discuss the demerits of otherwise highly lauded electric propulsion concepts. --- Value - To evaluate the viability of the hydraulic propulsion systems for passenger aircraft using simple mass models and aircraft design concept.

Purpose - This master thesis evaluates the hybrid-electric aircraft project E-Fan X with respect to its economical and environmental performance in comparison to its reference aircraft, the BAe 146-100. The E-Fan X is replacing one of the four jet engines of the reference aircraft by an electric motor and a fan. A turboshaft engine in the cargo compartment drives a generator to power the electric motor. --- Methodology - The evaluation of this project is based on standard aircraft design equations. Economics are based on Direct Operating Costs (DOC), which are calculated with the method of the Association of European Airlines (AEA) from 1989, inflated to 2019 values. Environmental impact is assessed based on local air quality (NOx, Ozone and Particulate Matter), climate impact (CO2, NOx, Aircraft-Induced Cloudiness known as AIC) and noise pollution estimated with fundamental acoustic equations. --- Findings - The battery on board the E-Fan X it is not necessary. In order to improve the proposed design, the battery was eliminated. Nevertheless, due to additional parts required in the new configuration, the aircraft is 902 kg heavier. The turboshaft engine saves only 59 kg of fuel. The additional mass has to be compensated by a payload reduced by 9 passengers. The DOC per seat-mile are up by more than 10% and equivalent CO2 per seat-mile are more than 16% up in the new aircraft. --- Research limitations - Results are limited in accuracy by the underlying standard aircraft design calculations. The results are also limited in accuracy by the lack of knowledge of some data of the project. --- Practical implications - The report contributes arguments to the discussion about electric flight. --- Social implications - Results show that unconditional praise given to the environmental characteristics of this industry project are not justified.

Currently the system development of aircraft engineering concentrates its focus on the reduction of energy consumption more than ever before. As a consequence, the efficiency of subsystems inside the aircraft is highlighted. According to previous investigations the simplification/unification of conventional multifaceted board energy systems by means of electric power management is the most promising way concerning aircraft global efficiency improvement. The main aim of the present work was to optimize a multi-device, heavy duty EHA-System by introducing of a comprehensive perspective. In order to achieve the final, non-plus-ultra improvement level, the attributes of architecture, hardware and operation method were combined in an interactive manner, whereas particular attention has been paid to the mutual enhancing influences. The maximum reduction of losses, the minimizing of consumption and weight optimization can be achieved concurrently when the physical coherences between the involved subsystems are understood and their hidden potentials are exploited. This can only be achieved in one way and the detail follows: The most effective way to reduce both manufacturing effort and weight is to introduce a multiple-allocation philosophy. The highest reliability possible can be achieved by novel cascade-nested system architecture and strict restraining of the control logic. By employing an ultra-low-loss hardware concept, the energy efficiency can be maximized at a necessary minimum own weight. Last but not least, possibly the most important cognition is that an intelligent operation method will improve the actual system and influence the entire system positively and with a lower effort. The final conclusion is that the only and reasonable way to achieve an ultimate optimized solution of an actuation system is an all-encompassing consideration. Eventually it was to recognize that the final result is nothing but ultimate lightweight architecture, i.e. a non-plus-ultra solution. / Gegenwärtig konzentriert sich die Technologieentwicklung für Flugzeuge auf die Reduktion des Energieverbrauchs mehr denn je zuvor. Hierfür ist die Effizienz der an Bord befindlichen, nicht propulsiven Subsysteme neben der Wirkungsgradverbesserung der Triebwerke von zentraler Bedeutung. Laut vorangegangenen Untersuchungen und Studien ist die Vereinfachung bzw. Vereinheitlichung der Vielfalt der konventionellen Bordenergiesysteme durch ein adäquates Energiemanagement unter Verwendung von Elektrizität der aussichtsreichte Weg zur Effizienzverbesserung auf der Gesamtflugzeugebene. Durch die Elektrifizierung wurden die einzelnen Geräte zwar zuverlässiger und energieeffizienter als je zuvor aber gleichzeitig erheblich schwerer, sodaß ein signifikanter Verlust an Nutzlasten auf Gesamtflugzeugebene hervorgerufen wird. Das Hauptziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, ein Schwerlast-EHA-System mit mehrfachen Betätigungseinheiten durch Einführung von umfassenden Perspektiven zu optimieren. Durch Einführung der sog. ganzheitlichen Leichtbauweise demonstriert die Arbeit, wie das Subsystem mit mehreren Endgeräten ultimativ optimiert werden kann, ohne Abstriche an Gewichtsbilanz u/o Kompromiß mit der Energieeffizienz zu machen. Um eine wahrhaftige Optimierung, d.h. die Erreichung des ultimativen, Nonplusultra-Verbesserungslevels zu erreichen, wurden die Systemarchitektur, die Hardware und die Operationsmethode interaktiv kombiniert, wobei die besondere Aufmerksamkeit auf die interaktiven, zur Verbesserung führenden Einflüsse gelegt wurde. Die Minimierung des Energieverbrauchs und die ultimative Gewichtsoptimierung gleichzeitig können erreicht werden, wenn die physikalischen Zusammenhänge zwischen den involvierten Subsystemen verstanden und ihre verborgenen Potentiale ausgenutzt werden. Der einzige und vernünftige Weg zur Erreichung der ultimativen Optimierung eines Betätigungssystems ist eine allumfassende Betrachtung, also eine ganzheitliche Betrachtungs- bzw. Vorgehensweise.