目標解讀在許多不同的模仿理論中均受到重視，並被認為是模仿學習中的關鍵。其中，目標導向的模仿理論認為在模仿過程裡，觀察者會將動作要素以階層關係重組為主要目標和次要目標，在資源有限的情況下，次要目標在模仿中容易被忽略，只重現主要目標。本研究修訂過去研究嬰兒目標導向模仿之作業，探索示範中的動作方向及口語提示線索如何影響嬰兒的目標導向模仿。在實驗1中，嬰兒看到示範者以跳躍或滑行的動作方式將玩偶移動至桌面或盒子裡，結果發現嬰兒會在沒有盒子的情境中模仿不同的動作方式，並在有盒子的情境裡模仿示範者的位置選擇。實驗2修訂實驗1的程序，延後呈現運動方向提示目標的時間，結果發現移動路徑的改變會使嬰兒在有盒子情境裡模仿位置選擇的正確性下降。實驗3在示範開始前加入口語提示協助嬰兒區辨目標位置，並使用與實驗2相同的移動路徑，結果發現口語提示無法增加有盒子情境位置選擇的正確性，反而使無盒子情境中模仿動作方式的表現減少。嬰兒的模仿行為不能完全用目標導向模仿理論中目標的階層排序解釋，示範情境、溝通互動以及語言等不同線索皆可能影響嬰兒推理目標的方式，改變模仿的傾向。 / The goal-directed theory of imitation claims that infants imitate an action by decomposing it into separate and hierarchically organized goals. When resources are limited, infants ignore less important goals to reproduce main goals. The evidence of this theory is that infants prefer to imitate action outcomes over styles when an external goal was present. In contrast, infants take action styles as major goals when there was no observable outcome. In this research, we investigated how movement direction and verbal information influence the goal-directed imitation process. In Experiment 1, we replicated the goal-choice imitation task used in previous research. 18-month-old infants observed an adult moving a toy animal in different action styles (slide or hop) into one of the two boxes (box condition) or onto the table (no-box condition).The results showed that infants imitated the action styles in no-box condition and matched the location choice in box condition. In Experiment 2, we modify the task by delaying the timing of movement direction cue for goal choice. Infants imitated the box choices less accurately after observing the modified demonstration. In Experiment 3, we verbalized the actor’s goal to investigate whether the goal choice errors in Experiment 2 are due to the lack of goal salience. We found no increase for the accuracy of matching location in the box condition but a decrease for the imitation of action styles in the no-box condition. In addition to the tendency to imitate different goals in different conditions, the study suggests important roles of movement direction and verbal cues in infants’ goal-directed imitation.

Imitation is a prerequisite for the development of several important abilities. Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) exhibit a distinct deficit in imitation. There has been a considerable amount of research into the most effective ways to teach this crucial skill. Unfortunately, there are drawbacks to many prevalent teaching strategies including difficulty with implementation and lack of generalization. The present study sought to determine whether video modeling (VM) might function as a successful alternative for teaching imitation to young children with ASD. The literature on VM has demonstrated that it can be a highly effective technique for teaching a variety of skills to individuals with ASD. Additionally, VM has been identified as easy to implement and has lead to improved generalization when compared to other treatments. However, there are still a number of questions about when, and for whom, VM is most effective. The current study begins to answer some of these questions by analyzing a treatment comparison between VM and live modeling (LM). Eight children were taught to imitate two equivalent behaviors each, one using VM and the other using LM. The trials to criterion required to learn the behaviors were then compared. Results indicated that there was a significant difference between the two treatment types, and that six of the participants were more successful with VM. Neither social skills nor technological literacy were significant predictors of treatment success. However, pre-treatment imitative abilities were shown to significantly predict success. Those children with the fewest imitative abilities were shown to be more successful with the VM technique, while those children with more imitative abilities were more successful with LM. An additional analysis was conducted to evaluate the predictive relationship between social skills and imitation. Results indicated that social skills significantly predict imitative abilities. These results could have widespread implications for imitation training, as they verify the relationship between social skills and imitation, demonstrate that VM can be an effective treatment for teaching young children with ASD to imitate, and further indicate that a pre-treatment imitation assessment may help to identify the most effective and efficient treatment for each child.

Le sujet de cette thèse est le mur comme élément du “décor’’, tel que l’âge classique l’entend. Pour les architectes et les théoriciens du XVIe et du XVIIe siècle, le mur contribue à la beauté de l’édifice. Différentes techniques de finition permettent de l’embellir : appareils en pierre de taille dressés et ravalés, bossages, briques polychromes, enduits qui unifient et enluminent les parements. Qu’il soit nu ou orné le mur n’est jamais neutre. Les architectes disposent sur le mur des motifs qui "enrichissent" les ordonnances, mais les surfaces décoratives qui qualifient les intervalles entre les principaux éléments du décor, ouvertures ou éléments de l’ordre, et les encadrements, qui montrent le mur comme un tableau, structurent les ordonnances, avec ou sans ordres. Ces ornements qui jouent un rôle aussi important sur le plan symbolique que syntaxique ont ainsi leur place dans le système classique des ornements dans lequel les ordres tiennent le premier rôle. Les ornements du mur peuvent prendre les caractères de l’ordre mais ont aussi leur propre rhétorique ; d’une part ils ont les qualités du mur même, d’autre part ils n’ont pas la même origine : les premiers ornements classiques imitent les inscriptions des monuments funéraires ou honorifiques de l’Antiquité. Une des particularités de la façade française est l’insistance sur les lignes verticales de la travée de fenêtres qui est en soi une composition ornementale. Les architectes coordonnent deux systèmes opposés : l’horizontalité qu’impose la superposition des ordres et la verticalité de la travée de fenêtres. Ils utilisent alors deux moyens : le renforcement des moulurations horizontales et l’ornement du mur. Cette thèse confirme certaines observations sur la façade française : l’effet a-tectonique des ornements, même si ceux-ci structurent la composition. Au principe classique de l’unité de l’organisme architectural dans lequel rien de peut être ajouté ou retranché, les architectes français apportent leur réponse : tous les éléments sont des ornements ainsi que le mur lui-même, qui se montre ou se voile de légers ornements. / The subject of this thesis is the wall as element of the "decor", such as the classic age understands it. For the architects and the theorists of the XVIth and of the XVIIth century, the wall contributes to the beauty of the building. Various techniques of finish allow to embellish it: dressed stone, perfectly raised, bossages, bricks, coat which unify and illuminate facings. Naked or decorated, the wall is never neutral. The architects put on the wall motives which "enrich" the composition, but the ornamental surfaces which qualify the intervals between the main elements of the decor, openings or elements of the order, and the frames which show the wall as a picture structure the composition, with or without orders. These ornaments which play a role as important on the symbolic plan as on syntactic one have their place in the classic system of the ornaments in which the orders hold the leading part. The ornaments of the wall can take the characters of the order but also have their own rhetoric; on one hand they have the qualities of the wall, on the other hand they don’t have the same origin: the first classic ornaments imitate the inscriptions of funeral or honorary monuments of the Antiquity. One of the peculiarities of the French facades is the insistence on the vertical lines of the bay of windows which is in itself a decorative composition. The architects coordinate two opposite systems: the horizontality which imposes the superimposition of the orders and the verticality of the bay of windows. They use then two means: the intensification of the horizontal moulding and the ornament of the wall. This thesis confirms certain observations on the French facade: the a-tectonic effect of the ornaments, even if this they structure the composition. To the classic principle of unity of the architectural body in which nothing can be added or substracted, the French architects bring their answer: all the elements are ornaments as well as the wall itself, which shows or hides with light ornaments.

Autism Spectrum disorder (ASD) is a wide ranging developmental condition commonly recognised by impairments in social interaction, communication, repetitive behaviour and restricted interests. Deficits in imitation, sensory processing and motor control are also extensive, but conflicting findings mean a clear picture regarding the true nature of these is yet to be established. The aim of this thesis was to further investigate imitation with a specific focus on the effect of goals. It has been suggested that imitation occurs along two routes; a direct route for the imitation of meaningless actions i.e. goal-less, and a semantic route for meaningful or goal-directed actions. There is evidence to suggest that while individuals with ASD may have an impairment in goal-less imitation, goal-directed imitation is unaffected (Hamilton, Brindley & Frith, 2007). The experiments in the present work were based on the hypothesis that impaired goal-less imitation in ASD may be due to a problem with sensory motor integration in the direct visuomotor pathway for imitation (Tessari and Rumiati, 2004).The first experiment was conducted to ascertain whether movement kinematics differed between imitation during goal-directed and goal-less hand movements in a neurotypical control group. Participants observed and imitated hand movements of different speeds, while their movement was recorded with a motion sensor. Movement was modulated between the different speeds in the goal-less, but not goal-directed trials. These findings support the dual route model where visuomotor mapping occurs via the direct pathway during goal-less imitation but during goal-directed imitation there is greater reliance on representations of actions from long term memory.In experiment two, the same paradigm was employed, including additional movement types, and a group of adult individuals diagnosed with an ASD was compared to a control group. It was predicted that, unlike the control group, the ASD group would fail to modulate their movement in the goal-less condition, due to a disruption in the direct pathway. Eye movements were also recorded in this experiment, to ascertain if differences in gaze position or eye movements might influence the ability of the ASD group to imitate goal-less actions. The ASD group did not modulate their movement for goal-less imitation. In addition, the ASD group exhibited more goal-directed gaze, and less gaze toward the hand, than the control group. The ASD group also failed to maintain pursuit of the hand, which may have influenced the amount of information collected regarding the movement.The third study extended the investigation by introducing a training phase halfway through the experiment. Based on eye movement findings, it was hypothesised that drawing attention to the hand might increase the importance of the hand in goal-less trials, subsequently leading to increased tracking, and improved imitation. Perspective was also investigated to determine whether observing the action from an egocentric perspective would improve imitation. Movement modulation was not improved for either the post training or the egocentric condition. However, both training and egocentric viewing resulted in faster performance of movements while training also reduced the amount of movement variability; suggesting that these conditions made imitation easier. Findings strongly support the hypothesis that people with ASD are impaired in goal-less but not goal-directed imitation. These results are discussed in terms of bottom-up and top-down influences on imitation. The observed eye movement differences between the ASD and control group suggest eye movement abnormalities, and the finding that egocentric observation facilitates imitation indicates problems with visuospatial transformation during allocentric imitation. Finally, failure to pursue may be due to lack of attention to the hand movement, evidenced by no increase in pursuit after training. This thesis concludes with the suggestion that impaired goal-less imitation in ASD may result primarily from bottom-up low level visual processing and oculomotor control problems, combined with a high level attentional mechanism. Future studies need to address whether these are the primary causes of imitation difficulties, or whether there is a fundamental sensory motor integration deficit in ASD.

Genom 2000-talets teknologiska framåtskridande finns förhoppningen om att en dag kunna skapa ett artificiellt medvetande, ett objekt med förmågan att tänka på att den tänker och med en egen fri vilja. Om eller när detta blir verklighet ställs frågorna vad exakt det är som människan har skapat och hur vi ska förhålla oss till det skapade. Dessa frågor ligger till grund för vad denna uppsats, genom ett innehållsanalytiskt tillvägagångssätt, undersöker, med syftet att analysera hur gestaltningen på film av artificiell intelligens (A.I.) kan förstås i relation till en kristen mytologi. Utifrån filmmanusen till The Imitation Game (2014) och Blade Runner 2049 (2017) analyseras de filmiska representationerna av A.I. med ett teologiskt avbildsbegrepp som dialogiskt förstoringsglas. Uppsatsen finner att fiktionen i detta sammanhang lyfter fram att strävan efter att skapa A.I. som avbild pekar på ett mänskligt sökande efter både närhet och kärlek.

This essay presents an interventional field study that aims to refine practice in the English classroom in Swedish upper-secondary school by implementing imitation pedagogy. Imitation pedagogy is essentially learning to analyze and imitate texts’ internal structure for developing one’s own production. The focus on my first research question was on examining if imitation pedagogy with political mentor texts develop students’ language awareness, language control, and argumentative abilities in reading and writing. My second research question was focused on investigating if political mentor texts could be used to prepare students for future participation in civic discussions and debates. My initial hypothesis was that mentor texts with political topics in imitation pedagogy could be used to develop students’ argumentative abilities; the learners could through this pedagogy be taught to recognize linguistic features in political texts that aim to persuade audiences, and the learners could learn to imitate these mentor texts to produce own successful argumentative writing. To answer my research questions and to see if my hypothesis was accurate, I conducted an interventional field study that followed a lesson study model. The findings from my study indicate that imitation pedagogy does develop and enhance learners’ language awareness, argumentative abilities, and ability to provide stronger contributions to discussions in different social and democratic contexts. Imitation pedagogy enhances the learners’ confidence and improve their writing capabilities, specifically the ability to compose stronger argumentations in writing in different situations varying from smaller everyday issues to larger societal and political issues. Moreover, imitation pedagogy promotes the development of language control and critical language awareness. The learners practiced writing in new patterns, which forced the students to use their linguistic knowledge to produce sentences with language accuracy, fluency, and coherency. In addition, the students learned in this interventional study to recognize different linguistic and grammatical features that can add power to written compositions in different social and democratic contexts. By being able to recognize these features, the learners can be more aware of manipulative language in political texts and more effectively counter them.

Orientador(a): Lia Vera Tomás / Banca: Yara Borges Caznok / Banca: Graziela Bortz / Banca: Carin Zwilling / Banca: Mário Videira / Resumo: Este trabalho tem como objetivo discutir os vários sentidos do conceito de imitação relacionados à ópera inglesa do século XVIII. Através do exame de textos britânicos do século XVIII quanto à estética musical e de teóricos como Thomas Rymer, John Dennis, Thomas Twining, dentre outros, que se referiram à imitação e expressão em música, nos perguntamos: quais concepções imitativas e modelos miméticos foram de uso corrente na Inglaterra daquele período? De que modo as teorias imitativas foram estabelecidas e utilizadas como critério de julgamento estético para a ópera e porque esse critério foi visto com ressalvas por autores como Daniel Webb e John Hawkins? O que podemos derivar dos ataques e defesas feitos a elas? Em que medida a Inglaterra dialoga (ou não) com a França sobre esse problema? Para responder a essas questões, consideramos o modo como a música, a ideia de natureza e razão foram compreendidas no século XVIII, e como essa compreensão atuou na concepção estética da música. Procurou-se seguir a trajetória da imitação como prerrogativa para a execução da ópera, e como ela se perdurou no decorrer desse século, mesmo em meio às polêmicas e à instauração da ideia de expressão em música, que trouxe possibilidades autônomas para a música, tornando-se independente das teorias imitativas em música. Os resultados a que se chegou foram que a estética musical vinculada aos sentimentos como critério de gosto e de valoração da música a partir da expressão musical foi suplantando... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Résumé: Cet article vise à discuter des différentes significations du concept d'imitation lié à l'opéra anglais du 18ème siècle. En examinant des textes britanniques du XVIIIe siècle sur l'esthétique musicale et des théoriciens tels que Thomas Rymer, John Dennis, Thomas Twining, entre autres, qui ont évoqué l'imitation et l'expression en musique, nous nous sommes posé la question suivante: quelles conceptions imitatives et quels modèles mimétiques étaient utilisation actuelle en Angleterre de cette période? Comment les théories imitatives ont-elles été établies et utilisées en tant que critère de jugement esthétique pour l'opéra et pourquoi ce critère a-t-il été interprété avec réserve par des auteurs tels que Daniel Webb et John Hawkins? Que pouvons-nous tirer des attaques et des défenses qui leur ont été faites? Dans quelle mesure l'Angleterre dialogue-t-elle (ou pas) avec la France sur ce problème? Pour répondre à ces questions, nous examinons comment la musique, les notions de nature et de raison ont été comprises au XVIIIe siècle et comment cette compréhension a agi dans la conception esthétique de la musique. Nous avons cherché à suivre la trajectoire de l'imitation comme une prérogative pour la représentation de l'opéra et comment elle a duré tout au long de ce siècle, malgré les controverses et l'instauration de la notion d'expression dans la musique, qui a apporté des possibilités autonomes de indépendant des théories imitatives en musique. Les résultats ont été que... (Résumé complet accès életronique ci-dessous) / Abstract: This paper aims to discuss the various meanings of the concept of imitation related to 18th century English opera. By examining eighteenth-century British texts on musical aesthetics and theorists such as Thomas Rymer, John Dennis, Thomas Twining, among others, who referred to imitation and expression in music, we ask ourselves: what imitative conceptions and mimetic models were of current use in England of that period? How were imitative theories established and used as an aesthetic judgment criterion for opera, and why was this criterion viewed with caveats by authors such as Daniel Webb and John Hawkins? What can we derive from the attacks and defenses made to them? To what extent does England dialogue (or not) with France about this problem? To answer these questions, we consider how music, the idea of ​​nature and reason were understood in the eighteenth century, and how this understanding acted in the aesthetic conception of music. We sought to follow the trajectory of imitation as a prerogative for the performance of opera, and how it lasted throughout this century, even amid the controversies and the establishment of the idea of ​​expression in music, which brought autonomous possibilities for music, making independent of imitative theories in music. The results were that the musical aesthetics linked to feelings as a criterion of taste and appreciation of music from musical expression was supplanting the power of imitative theories, making the music adapt to the... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Denna c-uppsats undersöker filosofen och författaren Thomas Thorilds (1759–1808) egna författarideal och hur han förhöll sig till härmande. Våra litteraturhistoriska läroböcker attribuerar romantiken för att vara den första epok där idealet om den originella författaren uppkommer. Detta i samband med Europas första upphovsrättsliga lagstiftningar. Thorild introducerades ett nytt originellt författarideal i Sverige, denna uppsats är ett nytt perspektiv på den svensk romantiken förhållande till härmandet utifrån Thorild. Undersökningen utgörs av en historiserande metod med perspektiv på Thorilds egna synsätt och värderingar. Mitt källmaterial bygger på Thorilds egna dikter och verk som En Critik Öfver Critiker (1791) samt Om Efterhärmning (1792). Det teoretiska perspektiv jag utgår ifrån är tidigare forskare såsom Martin Fredrikssons och hans avhandling, där han anayserar konstruktionen av författaren i laglig bemärkelse. Sedan Martha Woodmansee vars forskning ifrågasätter bilden av att ”de sköna konsterna som något evig och densamma genom historien. Vår moderna syn bottnar i romantiska ideal, men de formas alltid efter sin samtid. Sist ut är I Michel Foucault som diskuterat individualiseringen av författaren och när författarjaget blir synonymt med bokens liv. Denna undersökning är högst relevant då studier av den svenska romantikens ideal och förhållande till originalitet inte har studerats utifrån Thomas Thorild i samband med hans författarideal. Thorild är han som attribueras som den som introducerade det romantiska författaridealet till Sverige och därför det självklara valet för undersökningen.

Den här studien syftar till att undersöka om svenska läromedel för Matematik 3b genom användandet av problemlösningsuppgifter ger elever möjlighet att kunna skapa förståelse för derivata. Metoden är kvantitativ innehållsanalys, och läromedlen analyserades med hjälp av ett kodningsschema med sju dimensioner. Huvudfokus för kodningen var uppgiftstyp, som kategoriserades utifrån grad av problemlösning. Kategorierna representerar olika uppgiftstyper med olika grad av imitation, resonemang och problemlösning. Detta gjordes för att kunna hitta mönster i hur läromedlens upplägg i termer av hur uppgiftstyp (grad av problemlösning) relaterar till svårighetsgrad och avsnittstyp. Resultaten framställs genom tabeller och diagram. Resultaten pekar på att läromedlen generellt sett är relativt lika i sitt upplägg och uppgiftsfokus, även om det i vissa aspekter finns vissa skillnader. Det tydligaste mönstret är hur imitationsuppgifter dominerar den ordinarie uppgiftssamlingen, framför allt på grundläggande nivå. Dessutom finns mönster i hur specialavsnitt skiljer sig från de andra avsnittstyperna i termer av vilka uppgifter som är i fokus. Slutsatsen är även att trots att det finns en övervikt av imitationsuppgifter i de flesta läromedel, kan elever fortfarande utveckla alla förmågor som behövs – om läraren använder läromedlet på ett effektivt sätt. / This study’s purpose is to investigate if Swedish textbooks in the course “Matematik 3b”, through the use of problem-solving tasks, give students the possibility to create a deeper understanding of the concept of derivatives. The method is a quantitative content analysis, and the textbooks were analyzed by the usage of a coding schedule consisting of seven dimensions. The main focus regarding the coding of tasks was type of task, which was categorized according to level of problem-solving required to solve the task. The categories represent different task types defined by different amounts of problem-solving, reasoning and imitation. This was done in order to find patterns regarding how the textbooks were structured in terms of how task type relates to degree of difficulty and type of section in which the task appears. The results are presented through tables and diagrams. They point to the fact that in general, the textbooks are similar in terms of structure and task focus, even though there are some differences in certain aspects. The most obvious pattern is how imitation dominates the main tasks, especially those that are on a basic level. Furthermore, there are patterns in how the “special sections” differ in terms of which task types are in focus. The conclusion is that even though imitation dominates most textbooks, textbooks still offer students possibilities to develop in every aspect of mathematics – if the teacher uses the textbook in an efficient way.

Recently, the availability of high quality and high resolution spatio-temporal data has increased for many sports. This enabled deep analysis of player behaviour and game strategy. This thesis investigates the assumption that game strategy is latent information in tracking data from soccer games and the possibility of modelling player behaviour with deep imitation learning. A possible application would be to perform counterfactual analysis, and switch an observed player in a real sequence, with a simulated player to asses alternative scenarios. An imitation learning application is implemented using recurrent neural networks. It is shown that the application is able to learn individual player behaviour and perform rollouts on previously unseen sequences.